Merge pull request #2466 from whitequark/cxxrtl-reset

[yosys.git] / backends / cxxrtl / cxxrtl_backend.cc

/*
 *  yosys -- Yosys Open SYnthesis Suite
 *
 *  Copyright (C) 2019-2020  whitequark <whitequark@whitequark.org>
 *
 *  Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
 *  purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above
 *  copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
 *
 *  THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES
 *  WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
 *  MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR
 *  ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
 *  WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
 *  ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF
 *  OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
 *
 */

#include "kernel/rtlil.h"
#include "kernel/register.h"
#include "kernel/sigtools.h"
#include "kernel/utils.h"
#include "kernel/celltypes.h"
#include "kernel/mem.h"
#include "kernel/log.h"

USING_YOSYS_NAMESPACE
PRIVATE_NAMESPACE_BEGIN

// [[CITE]]
// Peter Eades; Xuemin Lin; W. F. Smyth, "A Fast Effective Heuristic For The Feedback Arc Set Problem"
// Information Processing Letters, Vol. 47, pp 319-323, 1993
// https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c7ed/d9acce96ca357876540e19664eb9d976637f.pdf

// A topological sort (on a cell/wire graph) is always possible in a fully flattened RTLIL design without
// processes or logic loops where every wire has a single driver. Logic loops are illegal in RTLIL and wires
// with multiple drivers can be split by the `splitnets` pass; however, interdependencies between processes
// or module instances can create strongly connected components without introducing evaluation nondeterminism.
// We wish to support designs with such benign SCCs (as well as designs with multiple drivers per wire), so
// we sort the graph in a way that minimizes feedback arcs. If there are no feedback arcs in the sorted graph,
// then a more efficient evaluation method is possible, since eval() will always immediately converge.
template<class T>
struct Scheduler {
        struct Vertex {
                T *data;
                Vertex *prev, *next;
                pool<Vertex*, hash_ptr_ops> preds, succs;

                Vertex() : data(NULL), prev(this), next(this) {}
                Vertex(T *data) : data(data), prev(NULL), next(NULL) {}

                bool empty() const
                {
                        log_assert(data == NULL);
                        if (next == this) {
                                log_assert(prev == next);
                                return true;
                        }
                        return false;
                }

                void link(Vertex *list)
                {
                        log_assert(prev == NULL && next == NULL);
                        next = list;
                        prev = list->prev;
                        list->prev->next = this;
                        list->prev = this;
                }

                void unlink()
                {
                        log_assert(prev->next == this && next->prev == this);
                        prev->next = next;
                        next->prev = prev;
                        next = prev = NULL;
                }

                int delta() const
                {
                        return succs.size() - preds.size();
                }
        };

        std::vector<Vertex*> vertices;
        Vertex *sources = new Vertex;
        Vertex *sinks = new Vertex;
        dict<int, Vertex*> bins;

        ~Scheduler()
        {
                delete sources;
                delete sinks;
                for (auto bin : bins)
                        delete bin.second;
                for (auto vertex : vertices)
                        delete vertex;
        }

        Vertex *add(T *data)
        {
                Vertex *vertex = new Vertex(data);
                vertices.push_back(vertex);
                return vertex;
        }

        void relink(Vertex *vertex)
        {
                if (vertex->succs.empty())
                        vertex->link(sinks);
                else if (vertex->preds.empty())
                        vertex->link(sources);
                else {
                        int delta = vertex->delta();
                        if (!bins.count(delta))
                                bins[delta] = new Vertex;
                        vertex->link(bins[delta]);
                }
        }

        Vertex *remove(Vertex *vertex)
        {
                vertex->unlink();
                for (auto pred : vertex->preds) {
                        if (pred == vertex)
                                continue;
                        log_assert(pred->succs[vertex]);
                        pred->unlink();
                        pred->succs.erase(vertex);
                        relink(pred);
                }
                for (auto succ : vertex->succs) {
                        if (succ == vertex)
                                continue;
                        log_assert(succ->preds[vertex]);
                        succ->unlink();
                        succ->preds.erase(vertex);
                        relink(succ);
                }
                vertex->preds.clear();
                vertex->succs.clear();
                return vertex;
        }

        std::vector<Vertex*> schedule()
        {
                std::vector<Vertex*> s1, s2r;
                for (auto vertex : vertices)
                        relink(vertex);
                bool bins_empty = false;
                while (!(sinks->empty() && sources->empty() && bins_empty)) {
                        while (!sinks->empty())
                                s2r.push_back(remove(sinks->next));
                        while (!sources->empty())
                                s1.push_back(remove(sources->next));
                        // Choosing u in this implementation isn't O(1), but the paper handwaves which data structure they suggest
                        // using to get O(1) relinking *and* find-max-key ("it is clear"... no it isn't), so this code uses a very
                        // naive implementation of find-max-key.
                        bins_empty = true;
                        bins.template sort<std::greater<int>>();
                        for (auto bin : bins) {
                                if (!bin.second->empty()) {
                                        bins_empty = false;
                                        s1.push_back(remove(bin.second->next));
                                        break;
                                }
                        }
                }
                s1.insert(s1.end(), s2r.rbegin(), s2r.rend());
                return s1;
        }
};

bool is_unary_cell(RTLIL::IdString type)
{
        return type.in(
                ID($not), ID($logic_not), ID($reduce_and), ID($reduce_or), ID($reduce_xor), ID($reduce_xnor), ID($reduce_bool),
                ID($pos), ID($neg));
}

bool is_binary_cell(RTLIL::IdString type)
{
        return type.in(
                ID($and), ID($or), ID($xor), ID($xnor), ID($logic_and), ID($logic_or),
                ID($shl), ID($sshl), ID($shr), ID($sshr), ID($shift), ID($shiftx),
                ID($eq), ID($ne), ID($eqx), ID($nex), ID($gt), ID($ge), ID($lt), ID($le),
                ID($add), ID($sub), ID($mul), ID($div), ID($mod));
}

bool is_extending_cell(RTLIL::IdString type)
{
        return !type.in(
                ID($logic_not), ID($logic_and), ID($logic_or),
                ID($reduce_and), ID($reduce_or), ID($reduce_xor), ID($reduce_xnor), ID($reduce_bool));
}

bool is_elidable_cell(RTLIL::IdString type)
{
        return is_unary_cell(type) || is_binary_cell(type) || type.in(
                ID($mux), ID($concat), ID($slice), ID($pmux));
}

bool is_ff_cell(RTLIL::IdString type)
{
        return type.in(
                ID($dff), ID($dffe), ID($sdff), ID($sdffe), ID($sdffce),
                ID($adff), ID($adffe), ID($dffsr), ID($dffsre),
                ID($dlatch), ID($adlatch), ID($dlatchsr), ID($sr));
}

bool is_internal_cell(RTLIL::IdString type)
{
        return type[0] == '$' && !type.begins_with("$paramod");
}

bool is_cxxrtl_blackbox_cell(const RTLIL::Cell *cell)
{
        RTLIL::Module *cell_module = cell->module->design->module(cell->type);
        log_assert(cell_module != nullptr);
        return cell_module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox));
}

enum class CxxrtlPortType {
        UNKNOWN = 0, // or mixed comb/sync
        COMB = 1,
        SYNC = 2,
};

CxxrtlPortType cxxrtl_port_type(const RTLIL::Cell *cell, RTLIL::IdString port)
{
        RTLIL::Module *cell_module = cell->module->design->module(cell->type);
        if (cell_module == nullptr || !cell_module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)))
                return CxxrtlPortType::UNKNOWN;
        RTLIL::Wire *cell_output_wire = cell_module->wire(port);
        log_assert(cell_output_wire != nullptr);
        bool is_comb = cell_output_wire->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_comb));
        bool is_sync = cell_output_wire->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_sync));
        if (is_comb && is_sync)
                log_cmd_error("Port `%s.%s' is marked as both `cxxrtl_comb` and `cxxrtl_sync`.\n",
                              log_id(cell_module), log_signal(cell_output_wire));
        else if (is_comb)
                return CxxrtlPortType::COMB;
        else if (is_sync)
                return CxxrtlPortType::SYNC;
        return CxxrtlPortType::UNKNOWN;
}

bool is_cxxrtl_comb_port(const RTLIL::Cell *cell, RTLIL::IdString port)
{
        return cxxrtl_port_type(cell, port) == CxxrtlPortType::COMB;
}

bool is_cxxrtl_sync_port(const RTLIL::Cell *cell, RTLIL::IdString port)
{
        return cxxrtl_port_type(cell, port) == CxxrtlPortType::SYNC;
}

struct FlowGraph {
        struct Node {
                enum class Type {
                        CONNECT,
                        CELL_SYNC,
                        CELL_EVAL,
                        PROCESS
                };

                Type type;
                RTLIL::SigSig connect = {};
                const RTLIL::Cell *cell = NULL;
                const RTLIL::Process *process = NULL;
        };

        std::vector<Node*> nodes;
        dict<const RTLIL::Wire*, pool<Node*, hash_ptr_ops>> wire_comb_defs, wire_sync_defs, wire_uses;
        dict<const RTLIL::Wire*, bool> wire_def_elidable, wire_use_elidable;
        dict<RTLIL::SigBit, bool> bit_has_state;

        ~FlowGraph()
        {
                for (auto node : nodes)
                        delete node;
        }

        void add_defs(Node *node, const RTLIL::SigSpec &sig, bool is_ff, bool elidable)
        {
                for (auto chunk : sig.chunks())
                        if (chunk.wire) {
                                if (is_ff) {
                                        // A sync def means that a wire holds design state because it is driven directly by
                                        // a flip-flop output. Such a wire can never be unbuffered.
                                        wire_sync_defs[chunk.wire].insert(node);
                                } else {
                                        // A comb def means that a wire doesn't hold design state. It might still be connected,
                                        // indirectly, to a flip-flop output.
                                        wire_comb_defs[chunk.wire].insert(node);
                                }
                        }
                for (auto bit : sig.bits())
                        bit_has_state[bit] |= is_ff;
                // Only comb defs of an entire wire in the right order can be elided.
                if (!is_ff && sig.is_wire())
                        wire_def_elidable[sig.as_wire()] = elidable;
        }

        void add_uses(Node *node, const RTLIL::SigSpec &sig)
        {
                for (auto chunk : sig.chunks())
                        if (chunk.wire) {
                                wire_uses[chunk.wire].insert(node);
                                // Only a single use of an entire wire in the right order can be elided.
                                // (But the use can include other chunks.)
                                if (!wire_use_elidable.count(chunk.wire))
                                        wire_use_elidable[chunk.wire] = true;
                                else
                                        wire_use_elidable[chunk.wire] = false;
                        }
        }

        bool is_elidable(const RTLIL::Wire *wire) const
        {
                if (wire_def_elidable.count(wire) && wire_use_elidable.count(wire))
                        return wire_def_elidable.at(wire) && wire_use_elidable.at(wire);
                return false;
        }

        // Connections
        void add_connect_defs_uses(Node *node, const RTLIL::SigSig &conn)
        {
                add_defs(node, conn.first, /*is_ff=*/false, /*elidable=*/true);
                add_uses(node, conn.second);
        }

        Node *add_node(const RTLIL::SigSig &conn)
        {
                Node *node = new Node;
                node->type = Node::Type::CONNECT;
                node->connect = conn;
                nodes.push_back(node);
                add_connect_defs_uses(node, conn);
                return node;
        }

        // Cells
        void add_cell_sync_defs(Node *node, const RTLIL::Cell *cell)
        {
                // To understand why this node type is necessary and why it produces comb defs, consider a cell
                // with input \i and sync output \o, used in a design such that \i is connected to \o. This does
                // not result in a feedback arc because the output is synchronous. However, a naive implementation
                // of code generation for cells that assigns to inputs, evaluates cells, assigns from outputs
                // would not be able to immediately converge...
                //
                //   wire<1> i_tmp;
                //   cell->p_i = i_tmp.curr;
                //   cell->eval();
                //   i_tmp.next = cell->p_o.curr;
                //
                // ... since the wire connecting the input and output ports would not be localizable. To solve
                // this, the cell is split into two scheduling nodes; one exclusively for sync outputs, and
                // another for inputs and all non-sync outputs. This way the generated code can be rearranged...
                //
                //   value<1> i_tmp;
                //   i_tmp = cell->p_o.curr;
                //   cell->p_i = i_tmp;
                //   cell->eval();
                //
                // eliminating the unnecessary delta cycle. Conceptually, the CELL_SYNC node type is a series of
                // connections of the form `connect \lhs \cell.\sync_output`; the right-hand side of these is not
                // expressible as a wire in RTLIL. If it was expressible, then `\cell.\sync_output` would have
                // a sync def, and this node would be an ordinary CONNECT node, with `\lhs` having a comb def.
                // Because it isn't, a special node type is used, the right-hand side does not appear anywhere,
                // and the left-hand side has a comb def.
                for (auto conn : cell->connections())
                        if (cell->output(conn.first))
                                if (is_cxxrtl_sync_port(cell, conn.first)) {
                                        // See note regarding elidability below.
                                        add_defs(node, conn.second, /*is_ff=*/false, /*elidable=*/false);
                                }
        }

        void add_cell_eval_defs_uses(Node *node, const RTLIL::Cell *cell)
        {
                for (auto conn : cell->connections()) {
                        if (cell->output(conn.first)) {
                                if (is_elidable_cell(cell->type))
                                        add_defs(node, conn.second, /*is_ff=*/false, /*elidable=*/true);
                                else if (is_ff_cell(cell->type) || (cell->type == ID($memrd) && cell->getParam(ID::CLK_ENABLE).as_bool()))
                                        add_defs(node, conn.second, /*is_ff=*/true,  /*elidable=*/false);
                                else if (is_internal_cell(cell->type))
                                        add_defs(node, conn.second, /*is_ff=*/false, /*elidable=*/false);
                                else if (!is_cxxrtl_sync_port(cell, conn.first)) {
                                        // Although at first it looks like outputs of user-defined cells may always be elided, the reality is
                                        // more complex. Fully sync outputs produce no defs and so don't participate in elision. Fully comb
                                        // outputs are assigned in a different way depending on whether the cell's eval() immediately converged.
                                        // Unknown/mixed outputs could be elided, but should be rare in practical designs and don't justify
                                        // the infrastructure required to elide outputs of cells with many of them.
                                        add_defs(node, conn.second, /*is_ff=*/false, /*elidable=*/false);
                                }
                        }
                        if (cell->input(conn.first))
                                add_uses(node, conn.second);
                }
        }

        Node *add_node(const RTLIL::Cell *cell)
        {
                log_assert(cell->known());

                bool has_fully_sync_outputs = false;
                for (auto conn : cell->connections())
                        if (cell->output(conn.first) && is_cxxrtl_sync_port(cell, conn.first)) {
                                has_fully_sync_outputs = true;
                                break;
                        }
                if (has_fully_sync_outputs) {
                        Node *node = new Node;
                        node->type = Node::Type::CELL_SYNC;
                        node->cell = cell;
                        nodes.push_back(node);
                        add_cell_sync_defs(node, cell);
                }

                Node *node = new Node;
                node->type = Node::Type::CELL_EVAL;
                node->cell = cell;
                nodes.push_back(node);
                add_cell_eval_defs_uses(node, cell);
                return node;
        }

        // Processes
        void add_case_defs_uses(Node *node, const RTLIL::CaseRule *case_)
        {
                for (auto &action : case_->actions) {
                        add_defs(node, action.first, /*is_ff=*/false, /*elidable=*/false);
                        add_uses(node, action.second);
                }
                for (auto sub_switch : case_->switches) {
                        add_uses(node, sub_switch->signal);
                        for (auto sub_case : sub_switch->cases) {
                                for (auto &compare : sub_case->compare)
                                        add_uses(node, compare);
                                add_case_defs_uses(node, sub_case);
                        }
                }
        }

        void add_process_defs_uses(Node *node, const RTLIL::Process *process)
        {
                add_case_defs_uses(node, &process->root_case);
                for (auto sync : process->syncs)
                        for (auto action : sync->actions) {
                                if (sync->type == RTLIL::STp || sync->type == RTLIL::STn || sync->type == RTLIL::STe)
                                  add_defs(node, action.first, /*is_ff=*/true,  /*elidable=*/false);
                                else
                                        add_defs(node, action.first, /*is_ff=*/false, /*elidable=*/false);
                                add_uses(node, action.second);
                        }
        }

        Node *add_node(const RTLIL::Process *process)
        {
                Node *node = new Node;
                node->type = Node::Type::PROCESS;
                node->process = process;
                nodes.push_back(node);
                add_process_defs_uses(node, process);
                return node;
        }
};

std::vector<std::string> split_by(const std::string &str, const std::string &sep)
{
        std::vector<std::string> result;
        size_t prev = 0;
        while (true) {
                size_t curr = str.find_first_of(sep, prev);
                if (curr == std::string::npos) {
                        std::string part = str.substr(prev);
                        if (!part.empty()) result.push_back(part);
                        break;
                } else {
                        std::string part = str.substr(prev, curr - prev);
                        if (!part.empty()) result.push_back(part);
                        prev = curr + 1;
                }
        }
        return result;
}

std::string escape_cxx_string(const std::string &input)
{
        std::string output = "\"";
        for (auto c : input) {
                if (::isprint(c)) {
                        if (c == '\\')
                                output.push_back('\\');
                        output.push_back(c);
                } else {
                        char l = c & 0xf, h = (c >> 4) & 0xf;
                        output.append("\\x");
                        output.push_back((h < 10 ? '0' + h : 'a' + h - 10));
                        output.push_back((l < 10 ? '0' + l : 'a' + l - 10));
                }
        }
        output.push_back('"');
        if (output.find('\0') != std::string::npos) {
                output.insert(0, "std::string {");
                output.append(stringf(", %zu}", input.size()));
        }
        return output;
}

template<class T>
std::string get_hdl_name(T *object)
{
        if (object->has_attribute(ID::hdlname))
                return object->get_string_attribute(ID::hdlname);
        else
                return object->name.str().substr(1);
}

struct CxxrtlWorker {
        bool split_intf = false;
        std::string intf_filename;
        std::string design_ns = "cxxrtl_design";
        std::ostream *impl_f = nullptr;
        std::ostream *intf_f = nullptr;

        bool run_hierarchy = false;
        bool run_flatten = false;
        bool run_proc = false;

        bool unbuffer_internal = false;
        bool unbuffer_public = false;
        bool localize_internal = false;
        bool localize_public = false;
        bool elide_internal = false;
        bool elide_public = false;

        bool debug_info = false;

        std::ostringstream f;
        std::string indent;
        int temporary = 0;

        dict<const RTLIL::Module*, SigMap> sigmaps;
        pool<const RTLIL::Wire*> edge_wires;
        dict<RTLIL::SigBit, RTLIL::SyncType> edge_types;
        pool<const RTLIL::Memory*> writable_memories;
        dict<const RTLIL::Cell*, pool<const RTLIL::Cell*>> transparent_for;
        dict<const RTLIL::Wire*, FlowGraph::Node> elided_wires;
        dict<const RTLIL::Module*, std::vector<FlowGraph::Node>> schedule;
        pool<const RTLIL::Wire*> unbuffered_wires;
        pool<const RTLIL::Wire*> localized_wires;
        dict<const RTLIL::Wire*, const RTLIL::Wire*> debug_alias_wires;
        dict<const RTLIL::Wire*, RTLIL::Const> debug_const_wires;
        dict<RTLIL::SigBit, bool> bit_has_state;
        dict<const RTLIL::Module*, pool<std::string>> blackbox_specializations;
        dict<const RTLIL::Module*, bool> eval_converges;

        void inc_indent() {
                indent += "\t";
        }
        void dec_indent() {
                indent.resize(indent.size() - 1);
        }

        // RTLIL allows any characters in names other than whitespace. This presents an issue for generating C++ code
        // because C++ identifiers may be only alphanumeric, cannot clash with C++ keywords, and cannot clash with cxxrtl
        // identifiers. This issue can be solved with a name mangling scheme. We choose a name mangling scheme that results
        // in readable identifiers, does not depend on an up-to-date list of C++ keywords, and is easy to apply. Its rules:
        //  1. All generated identifiers start with `_`.
        //  1a. Generated identifiers for public names (beginning with `\`) start with `p_`.
        //  1b. Generated identifiers for internal names (beginning with `$`) start with `i_`.
        //  2. An underscore is escaped with another underscore, i.e. `__`.
        //  3. Any other non-alnum character is escaped with underscores around its lowercase hex code, e.g. `@` as `_40_`.
        std::string mangle_name(const RTLIL::IdString &name)
        {
                std::string mangled;
                bool first = true;
                for (char c : name.str()) {
                        if (first) {
                                first = false;
                                if (c == '\\')
                                        mangled += "p_";
                                else if (c == '$')
                                        mangled += "i_";
                                else
                                        log_assert(false);
                        } else {
                                if (isalnum(c)) {
                                        mangled += c;
                                } else if (c == '_') {
                                        mangled += "__";
                                } else {
                                        char l = c & 0xf, h = (c >> 4) & 0xf;
                                        mangled += '_';
                                        mangled += (h < 10 ? '0' + h : 'a' + h - 10);
                                        mangled += (l < 10 ? '0' + l : 'a' + l - 10);
                                        mangled += '_';
                                }
                        }
                }
                return mangled;
        }

        std::string mangle_module_name(const RTLIL::IdString &name, bool is_blackbox = false)
        {
                // Class namespace.
                if (is_blackbox)
                        return "bb_" + mangle_name(name);
                return mangle_name(name);
        }

        std::string mangle_memory_name(const RTLIL::IdString &name)
        {
                // Class member namespace.
                return "memory_" + mangle_name(name);
        }

        std::string mangle_cell_name(const RTLIL::IdString &name)
        {
                // Class member namespace.
                return "cell_" + mangle_name(name);
        }

        std::string mangle_wire_name(const RTLIL::IdString &name)
        {
                // Class member namespace.
                return mangle_name(name);
        }

        std::string mangle(const RTLIL::Module *module)
        {
                return mangle_module_name(module->name, /*is_blackbox=*/module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)));
        }

        std::string mangle(const RTLIL::Memory *memory)
        {
                return mangle_memory_name(memory->name);
        }

        std::string mangle(const RTLIL::Cell *cell)
        {
                return mangle_cell_name(cell->name);
        }

        std::string mangle(const RTLIL::Wire *wire)
        {
                return mangle_wire_name(wire->name);
        }

        std::string mangle(RTLIL::SigBit sigbit)
        {
                log_assert(sigbit.wire != NULL);
                if (sigbit.wire->width == 1)
                        return mangle(sigbit.wire);
                return mangle(sigbit.wire) + "_" + std::to_string(sigbit.offset);
        }

        std::vector<std::string> template_param_names(const RTLIL::Module *module)
        {
                if (!module->has_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_template)))
                        return {};

                if (module->attributes.at(ID(cxxrtl_template)).flags != RTLIL::CONST_FLAG_STRING)
                        log_cmd_error("Attribute `cxxrtl_template' of module `%s' is not a string.\n", log_id(module));

                std::vector<std::string> param_names = split_by(module->get_string_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_template)), " \t");
                for (const auto &param_name : param_names) {
                        // Various lowercase prefixes (p_, i_, cell_, ...) are used for member variables, so require
                        // parameters to start with an uppercase letter to avoid name conflicts. (This is the convention
                        // in both Verilog and C++, anyway.)
                        if (!isupper(param_name[0]))
                                log_cmd_error("Attribute `cxxrtl_template' of module `%s' includes a parameter `%s', "
                                              "which does not start with an uppercase letter.\n",
                                              log_id(module), param_name.c_str());
                }
                return param_names;
        }

        std::string template_params(const RTLIL::Module *module, bool is_decl)
        {
                std::vector<std::string> param_names = template_param_names(module);
                if (param_names.empty())
                        return "";

                std::string params = "<";
                bool first = true;
                for (const auto &param_name : param_names) {
                        if (!first)
                                params += ", ";
                        first = false;
                        if (is_decl)
                                params += "size_t ";
                        params += param_name;
                }
                params += ">";
                return params;
        }

        std::string template_args(const RTLIL::Cell *cell)
        {
                RTLIL::Module *cell_module = cell->module->design->module(cell->type);
                log_assert(cell_module != nullptr);
                if (!cell_module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)))
                        return "";

                std::vector<std::string> param_names = template_param_names(cell_module);
                if (param_names.empty())
                        return "";

                std::string params = "<";
                bool first = true;
                for (const auto &param_name : param_names) {
                        if (!first)
                                params += ", ";
                        first = false;
                        params += "/*" + param_name + "=*/";
                        RTLIL::IdString id_param_name = '\\' + param_name;
                        if (!cell->hasParam(id_param_name))
                                log_cmd_error("Cell `%s.%s' does not have a parameter `%s', which is required by the templated module `%s'.\n",
                                              log_id(cell->module), log_id(cell), param_name.c_str(), log_id(cell_module));
                        RTLIL::Const param_value = cell->getParam(id_param_name);
                        if (((param_value.flags & ~RTLIL::CONST_FLAG_SIGNED) != 0) || param_value.as_int() < 0)
                                log_cmd_error("Parameter `%s' of cell `%s.%s', which is required by the templated module `%s', "
                                              "is not a positive integer.\n",
                                              param_name.c_str(), log_id(cell->module), log_id(cell), log_id(cell_module));
                        params += std::to_string(cell->getParam(id_param_name).as_int());
                }
                params += ">";
                return params;
        }

        std::string fresh_temporary()
        {
                return stringf("tmp_%d", temporary++);
        }

        void dump_attrs(const RTLIL::AttrObject *object)
        {
                for (auto attr : object->attributes) {
                        f << indent << "// " << attr.first.str() << ": ";
                        if (attr.second.flags & RTLIL::CONST_FLAG_STRING) {
                                f << attr.second.decode_string();
                        } else {
                                f << attr.second.as_int(/*is_signed=*/attr.second.flags & RTLIL::CONST_FLAG_SIGNED);
                        }
                        f << "\n";
                }
        }

        void dump_const_init(const RTLIL::Const &data, int width, int offset = 0, bool fixed_width = false)
        {
                const int CHUNK_SIZE = 32;
                f << "{";
                while (width > 0) {
                        int chunk_width = min(width, CHUNK_SIZE);
                        uint32_t chunk = data.extract(offset, chunk_width).as_int();
                        if (fixed_width)
                                f << stringf("0x%.*xu", (3 + chunk_width) / 4, chunk);
                        else
                                f << stringf("%#xu", chunk);
                        if (width > CHUNK_SIZE)
                                f << ',';
                        offset += CHUNK_SIZE;
                        width  -= CHUNK_SIZE;
                }
                f << "}";
        }

        void dump_const_init(const RTLIL::Const &data)
        {
                dump_const_init(data, data.size());
        }

        void dump_const(const RTLIL::Const &data, int width, int offset = 0, bool fixed_width = false)
        {
                f << "value<" << width << ">";
                dump_const_init(data, width, offset, fixed_width);
        }

        void dump_const(const RTLIL::Const &data)
        {
                dump_const(data, data.size());
        }

        bool dump_sigchunk(const RTLIL::SigChunk &chunk, bool is_lhs)
        {
                if (chunk.wire == NULL) {
                        dump_const(chunk.data, chunk.width, chunk.offset);
                        return false;
                } else {
                        if (elided_wires.count(chunk.wire)) {
                                log_assert(!is_lhs);
                                const FlowGraph::Node &node = elided_wires[chunk.wire];
                                switch (node.type) {
                                        case FlowGraph::Node::Type::CONNECT:
                                                dump_connect_elided(node.connect);
                                                break;
                                        case FlowGraph::Node::Type::CELL_EVAL:
                                                log_assert(is_elidable_cell(node.cell->type));
                                                dump_cell_elided(node.cell);
                                                break;
                                        default:
                                                log_assert(false);
                                }
                        } else if (unbuffered_wires[chunk.wire]) {
                                f << mangle(chunk.wire);
                        } else {
                                f << mangle(chunk.wire) << (is_lhs ? ".next" : ".curr");
                        }
                        if (chunk.width == chunk.wire->width && chunk.offset == 0)
                                return false;
                        else if (chunk.width == 1)
                                f << ".slice<" << chunk.offset << ">()";
                        else
                                f << ".slice<" << chunk.offset+chunk.width-1 << "," << chunk.offset << ">()";
                        return true;
                }
        }

        bool dump_sigspec(const RTLIL::SigSpec &sig, bool is_lhs)
        {
                if (sig.empty()) {
                        f << "value<0>()";
                        return false;
                } else if (sig.is_chunk()) {
                        return dump_sigchunk(sig.as_chunk(), is_lhs);
                } else {
                        dump_sigchunk(*sig.chunks().rbegin(), is_lhs);
                        for (auto it = sig.chunks().rbegin() + 1; it != sig.chunks().rend(); ++it) {
                                f << ".concat(";
                                dump_sigchunk(*it, is_lhs);
                                f << ")";
                        }
                        return true;
                }
        }

        void dump_sigspec_lhs(const RTLIL::SigSpec &sig)
        {
                dump_sigspec(sig, /*is_lhs=*/true);
        }

        void dump_sigspec_rhs(const RTLIL::SigSpec &sig)
        {
                // In the contexts where we want template argument deduction to occur for `template<size_t Bits> ... value<Bits>`,
                // it is necessary to have the argument to already be a `value<N>`, since template argument deduction and implicit
                // type conversion are mutually exclusive. In these contexts, we use dump_sigspec_rhs() to emit an explicit
                // type conversion, but only if the expression needs it.
                bool is_complex = dump_sigspec(sig, /*is_lhs=*/false);
                if (is_complex)
                        f << ".val()";
        }

        void collect_sigspec_rhs(const RTLIL::SigSpec &sig, std::vector<RTLIL::IdString> &cells)
        {
                for (auto chunk : sig.chunks()) {
                        if (!chunk.wire || !elided_wires.count(chunk.wire))
                                continue;

                        const FlowGraph::Node &node = elided_wires[chunk.wire];
                        switch (node.type) {
                                case FlowGraph::Node::Type::CONNECT:
                                        collect_connect(node.connect, cells);
                                        break;
                                case FlowGraph::Node::Type::CELL_EVAL:
                                        collect_cell_eval(node.cell, cells);
                                        break;
                                default:
                                        log_assert(false);
                        }
                }
        }

        void dump_connect_elided(const RTLIL::SigSig &conn)
        {
                dump_sigspec_rhs(conn.second);
        }

        bool is_connect_elided(const RTLIL::SigSig &conn)
        {
                return conn.first.is_wire() && elided_wires.count(conn.first.as_wire());
        }

        void collect_connect(const RTLIL::SigSig &conn, std::vector<RTLIL::IdString> &cells)
        {
                if (!is_connect_elided(conn))
                        return;

                collect_sigspec_rhs(conn.second, cells);
        }

        void dump_connect(const RTLIL::SigSig &conn)
        {
                if (is_connect_elided(conn))
                        return;

                f << indent << "// connection\n";
                f << indent;
                dump_sigspec_lhs(conn.first);
                f << " = ";
                dump_connect_elided(conn);
                f << ";\n";
        }

        void dump_cell_sync(const RTLIL::Cell *cell)
        {
                const char *access = is_cxxrtl_blackbox_cell(cell) ? "->" : ".";
                f << indent << "// cell " << cell->name.str() << " syncs\n";
                for (auto conn : cell->connections())
                        if (cell->output(conn.first))
                                if (is_cxxrtl_sync_port(cell, conn.first)) {
                                        f << indent;
                                        dump_sigspec_lhs(conn.second);
                                        f << " = " << mangle(cell) << access << mangle_wire_name(conn.first) << ".curr;\n";
                                }
        }

        void dump_cell_elided(const RTLIL::Cell *cell)
        {
                // Unary cells
                if (is_unary_cell(cell->type)) {
                        f << cell->type.substr(1);
                        if (is_extending_cell(cell->type))
                                f << '_' << (cell->getParam(ID::A_SIGNED).as_bool() ? 's' : 'u');
                        f << "<" << cell->getParam(ID::Y_WIDTH).as_int() << ">(";
                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::A));
                        f << ")";
                // Binary cells
                } else if (is_binary_cell(cell->type)) {
                        f << cell->type.substr(1);
                        if (is_extending_cell(cell->type))
                                f << '_' << (cell->getParam(ID::A_SIGNED).as_bool() ? 's' : 'u') <<
                                            (cell->getParam(ID::B_SIGNED).as_bool() ? 's' : 'u');
                        f << "<" << cell->getParam(ID::Y_WIDTH).as_int() << ">(";
                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::A));
                        f << ", ";
                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::B));
                        f << ")";
                // Muxes
                } else if (cell->type == ID($mux)) {
                        f << "(";
                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::S));
                        f << " ? ";
                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::B));
                        f << " : ";
                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::A));
                        f << ")";
                // Parallel (one-hot) muxes
                } else if (cell->type == ID($pmux)) {
                        int width = cell->getParam(ID::WIDTH).as_int();
                        int s_width = cell->getParam(ID::S_WIDTH).as_int();
                        for (int part = 0; part < s_width; part++) {
                                f << "(";
                                dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::S).extract(part));
                                f << " ? ";
                                dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::B).extract(part * width, width));
                                f << " : ";
                        }
                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::A));
                        for (int part = 0; part < s_width; part++) {
                                f << ")";
                        }
                // Concats
                } else if (cell->type == ID($concat)) {
                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::B));
                        f << ".concat(";
                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::A));
                        f << ").val()";
                // Slices
                } else if (cell->type == ID($slice)) {
                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::A));
                        f << ".slice<";
                        f << cell->getParam(ID::OFFSET).as_int() + cell->getParam(ID::Y_WIDTH).as_int() - 1;
                        f << ",";
                        f << cell->getParam(ID::OFFSET).as_int();
                        f << ">().val()";
                } else {
                        log_assert(false);
                }
        }

        bool is_cell_elided(const RTLIL::Cell *cell)
        {
                return is_elidable_cell(cell->type) && cell->hasPort(ID::Y) && cell->getPort(ID::Y).is_wire() &&
                        elided_wires.count(cell->getPort(ID::Y).as_wire());
        }

        void collect_cell_eval(const RTLIL::Cell *cell, std::vector<RTLIL::IdString> &cells)
        {
                if (!is_cell_elided(cell))
                        return;

                cells.push_back(cell->name);
                for (auto port : cell->connections())
                        if (port.first != ID::Y)
                                collect_sigspec_rhs(port.second, cells);
        }

        void dump_cell_eval(const RTLIL::Cell *cell)
        {
                if (is_cell_elided(cell))
                        return;
                if (cell->type == ID($meminit))
                        return; // Handled elsewhere.

                std::vector<RTLIL::IdString> elided_cells;
                if (is_elidable_cell(cell->type)) {
                        for (auto port : cell->connections())
                                if (port.first != ID::Y)
                                        collect_sigspec_rhs(port.second, elided_cells);
                }
                if (elided_cells.empty()) {
                        dump_attrs(cell);
                        f << indent << "// cell " << cell->name.str() << "\n";
                } else {
                        f << indent << "// cells";
                        for (auto elided_cell : elided_cells)
                                f << " " << elided_cell.str();
                        f << "\n";
                }

                // Elidable cells
                if (is_elidable_cell(cell->type)) {
                        f << indent;
                        dump_sigspec_lhs(cell->getPort(ID::Y));
                        f << " = ";
                        dump_cell_elided(cell);
                        f << ";\n";
                // Flip-flops
                } else if (is_ff_cell(cell->type)) {
                        if (cell->hasPort(ID::CLK) && cell->getPort(ID::CLK).is_wire()) {
                                // Edge-sensitive logic
                                RTLIL::SigBit clk_bit = cell->getPort(ID::CLK)[0];
                                clk_bit = sigmaps[clk_bit.wire->module](clk_bit);
                                f << indent << "if (" << (cell->getParam(ID::CLK_POLARITY).as_bool() ? "posedge_" : "negedge_")
                                            << mangle(clk_bit) << ") {\n";
                                inc_indent();
                                        if (cell->hasPort(ID::EN)) {
                                                f << indent << "if (";
                                                dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::EN));
                                                f << " == value<1> {" << cell->getParam(ID::EN_POLARITY).as_bool() << "u}) {\n";
                                                inc_indent();
                                        }
                                        f << indent;
                                        dump_sigspec_lhs(cell->getPort(ID::Q));
                                        f << " = ";
                                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::D));
                                        f << ";\n";
                                        if (cell->hasPort(ID::EN) && cell->type != ID($sdffce)) {
                                                dec_indent();
                                                f << indent << "}\n";
                                        }
                                        if (cell->hasPort(ID::SRST)) {
                                                f << indent << "if (";
                                                dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::SRST));
                                                f << " == value<1> {" << cell->getParam(ID::SRST_POLARITY).as_bool() << "u}) {\n";
                                                inc_indent();
                                                        f << indent;
                                                        dump_sigspec_lhs(cell->getPort(ID::Q));
                                                        f << " = ";
                                                        dump_const(cell->getParam(ID::SRST_VALUE));
                                                        f << ";\n";
                                                dec_indent();
                                                f << indent << "}\n";
                                        }
                                        if (cell->hasPort(ID::EN) && cell->type == ID($sdffce)) {
                                                dec_indent();
                                                f << indent << "}\n";
                                        }
                                dec_indent();
                                f << indent << "}\n";
                        } else if (cell->hasPort(ID::EN)) {
                                // Level-sensitive logic
                                f << indent << "if (";
                                dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::EN));
                                f << " == value<1> {" << cell->getParam(ID::EN_POLARITY).as_bool() << "u}) {\n";
                                inc_indent();
                                        f << indent;
                                        dump_sigspec_lhs(cell->getPort(ID::Q));
                                        f << " = ";
                                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::D));
                                        f << ";\n";
                                dec_indent();
                                f << indent << "}\n";
                        }
                        if (cell->hasPort(ID::ARST)) {
                                // Asynchronous reset (entire coarse cell at once)
                                f << indent << "if (";
                                dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::ARST));
                                f << " == value<1> {" << cell->getParam(ID::ARST_POLARITY).as_bool() << "u}) {\n";
                                inc_indent();
                                        f << indent;
                                        dump_sigspec_lhs(cell->getPort(ID::Q));
                                        f << " = ";
                                        dump_const(cell->getParam(ID::ARST_VALUE));
                                        f << ";\n";
                                dec_indent();
                                f << indent << "}\n";
                        }
                        if (cell->hasPort(ID::SET)) {
                                // Asynchronous set (for individual bits)
                                f << indent;
                                dump_sigspec_lhs(cell->getPort(ID::Q));
                                f << " = ";
                                dump_sigspec_lhs(cell->getPort(ID::Q));
                                f << ".update(";
                                dump_const(RTLIL::Const(RTLIL::S1, cell->getParam(ID::WIDTH).as_int()));
                                f << ", ";
                                dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::SET));
                                f << (cell->getParam(ID::SET_POLARITY).as_bool() ? "" : ".bit_not()") << ");\n";
                        }
                        if (cell->hasPort(ID::CLR)) {
                                // Asynchronous clear (for individual bits; priority over set)
                                f << indent;
                                dump_sigspec_lhs(cell->getPort(ID::Q));
                                f << " = ";
                                dump_sigspec_lhs(cell->getPort(ID::Q));
                                f << ".update(";
                                dump_const(RTLIL::Const(RTLIL::S0, cell->getParam(ID::WIDTH).as_int()));
                                f << ", ";
                                dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::CLR));
                                f << (cell->getParam(ID::CLR_POLARITY).as_bool() ? "" : ".bit_not()") << ");\n";
                        }
                // Memory ports
                } else if (cell->type.in(ID($memrd), ID($memwr))) {
                        if (cell->getParam(ID::CLK_ENABLE).as_bool()) {
                                RTLIL::SigBit clk_bit = cell->getPort(ID::CLK)[0];
                                clk_bit = sigmaps[clk_bit.wire->module](clk_bit);
                                f << indent << "if (" << (cell->getParam(ID::CLK_POLARITY).as_bool() ? "posedge_" : "negedge_")
                                            << mangle(clk_bit) << ") {\n";
                                inc_indent();
                        }
                        RTLIL::Memory *memory = cell->module->memories[cell->getParam(ID::MEMID).decode_string()];
                        std::string valid_index_temp = fresh_temporary();
                        f << indent << "auto " << valid_index_temp << " = memory_index(";
                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::ADDR));
                        f << ", " << memory->start_offset << ", " << memory->size << ");\n";
                        if (cell->type == ID($memrd)) {
                                bool has_enable = cell->getParam(ID::CLK_ENABLE).as_bool() && !cell->getPort(ID::EN).is_fully_ones();
                                if (has_enable) {
                                        f << indent << "if (";
                                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::EN));
                                        f << ") {\n";
                                        inc_indent();
                                }
                                // The generated code has two bounds checks; one in an assertion, and another that guards the read.
                                // This is done so that the code does not invoke undefined behavior under any conditions, but nevertheless
                                // loudly crashes if an illegal condition is encountered. The assert may be turned off with -DNDEBUG not
                                // just for release builds, but also to make sure the simulator (which is presumably embedded in some
                                // larger program) will never crash the code that calls into it.
                                //
                                // If assertions are disabled, out of bounds reads are defined to return zero.
                                f << indent << "assert(" << valid_index_temp << ".valid && \"out of bounds read\");\n";
                                f << indent << "if(" << valid_index_temp << ".valid) {\n";
                                inc_indent();
                                        if (writable_memories[memory]) {
                                                std::string lhs_temp = fresh_temporary();
                                                f << indent << "value<" << memory->width << "> " << lhs_temp << " = "
                                                            << mangle(memory) << "[" << valid_index_temp << ".index];\n";
                                                std::vector<const RTLIL::Cell*> memwr_cells(transparent_for[cell].begin(), transparent_for[cell].end());
                                                if (!memwr_cells.empty()) {
                                                        std::string addr_temp = fresh_temporary();
                                                        f << indent << "const value<" << cell->getPort(ID::ADDR).size() << "> &" << addr_temp << " = ";
                                                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::ADDR));
                                                        f << ";\n";
                                                        std::sort(memwr_cells.begin(), memwr_cells.end(),
                                                                [](const RTLIL::Cell *a, const RTLIL::Cell *b) {
                                                                        return a->getParam(ID::PRIORITY).as_int() < b->getParam(ID::PRIORITY).as_int();
                                                                });
                                                        for (auto memwr_cell : memwr_cells) {
                                                                f << indent << "if (" << addr_temp << " == ";
                                                                dump_sigspec_rhs(memwr_cell->getPort(ID::ADDR));
                                                                f << ") {\n";
                                                                inc_indent();
                                                                        f << indent << lhs_temp << " = " << lhs_temp;
                                                                        f << ".update(";
                                                                        dump_sigspec_rhs(memwr_cell->getPort(ID::DATA));
                                                                        f << ", ";
                                                                        dump_sigspec_rhs(memwr_cell->getPort(ID::EN));
                                                                        f << ");\n";
                                                                dec_indent();
                                                                f << indent << "}\n";
                                                        }
                                                }
                                                f << indent;
                                                dump_sigspec_lhs(cell->getPort(ID::DATA));
                                                f << " = " << lhs_temp << ";\n";
                                        } else {
                                                f << indent;
                                                dump_sigspec_lhs(cell->getPort(ID::DATA));
                                                f << " = " << mangle(memory) << "[" << valid_index_temp << ".index];\n";
                                        }
                                dec_indent();
                                f << indent << "} else {\n";
                                inc_indent();
                                        f << indent;
                                        dump_sigspec_lhs(cell->getPort(ID::DATA));
                                        f << " = value<" << memory->width << "> {};\n";
                                dec_indent();
                                f << indent << "}\n";
                                if (has_enable) {
                                        dec_indent();
                                        f << indent << "}\n";
                                }
                        } else /*if (cell->type == ID($memwr))*/ {
                                log_assert(writable_memories[memory]);
                                // See above for rationale of having both the assert and the condition.
                                //
                                // If assertions are disabled, out of bounds writes are defined to do nothing.
                                f << indent << "assert(" << valid_index_temp << ".valid && \"out of bounds write\");\n";
                                f << indent << "if (" << valid_index_temp << ".valid) {\n";
                                inc_indent();
                                        f << indent << mangle(memory) << ".update(" << valid_index_temp << ".index, ";
                                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::DATA));
                                        f << ", ";
                                        dump_sigspec_rhs(cell->getPort(ID::EN));
                                        f << ", " << cell->getParam(ID::PRIORITY).as_int() << ");\n";
                                dec_indent();
                                f << indent << "}\n";
                        }
                        if (cell->getParam(ID::CLK_ENABLE).as_bool()) {
                                dec_indent();
                                f << indent << "}\n";
                        }
                // Internal cells
                } else if (is_internal_cell(cell->type)) {
                        log_cmd_error("Unsupported internal cell `%s'.\n", cell->type.c_str());
                // User cells
                } else {
                        log_assert(cell->known());
                        const char *access = is_cxxrtl_blackbox_cell(cell) ? "->" : ".";
                        for (auto conn : cell->connections())
                                if (cell->input(conn.first) && !cell->output(conn.first)) {
                                        f << indent << mangle(cell) << access << mangle_wire_name(conn.first) << " = ";
                                        dump_sigspec_rhs(conn.second);
                                        f << ";\n";
                                        if (getenv("CXXRTL_VOID_MY_WARRANTY")) {
                                                // Until we have proper clock tree detection, this really awful hack that opportunistically
                                                // propagates prev_* values for clocks can be used to estimate how much faster a design could
                                                // be if only one clock edge was simulated by replacing:
                                                //   top.p_clk = value<1>{0u}; top.step();
                                                //   top.p_clk = value<1>{1u}; top.step();
                                                // with:
                                                //   top.prev_p_clk = value<1>{0u}; top.p_clk = value<1>{1u}; top.step();
                                                // Don't rely on this; it will be removed without warning.
                                                RTLIL::Module *cell_module = cell->module->design->module(cell->type);
                                                if (cell_module != nullptr && cell_module->wire(conn.first) && conn.second.is_wire()) {
                                                        RTLIL::Wire *cell_module_wire = cell_module->wire(conn.first);
                                                        if (edge_wires[conn.second.as_wire()] && edge_wires[cell_module_wire]) {
                                                                f << indent << mangle(cell) << access << "prev_" << mangle(cell_module_wire) << " = ";
                                                                f << "prev_" << mangle(conn.second.as_wire()) << ";\n";
                                                        }
                                                }
                                        }
                                } else if (cell->input(conn.first)) {
                                        f << indent << mangle(cell) << access << mangle_wire_name(conn.first) << ".next = ";
                                        dump_sigspec_rhs(conn.second);
                                        f << ";\n";
                                }
                        auto assign_from_outputs = [&](bool cell_converged) {
                                for (auto conn : cell->connections()) {
                                        if (cell->output(conn.first)) {
                                                if (conn.second.empty())
                                                        continue; // ignore disconnected ports
                                                if (is_cxxrtl_sync_port(cell, conn.first))
                                                        continue; // fully sync ports are handled in CELL_SYNC nodes
                                                f << indent;
                                                dump_sigspec_lhs(conn.second);
                                                f << " = " << mangle(cell) << access << mangle_wire_name(conn.first);
                                                // Similarly to how there is no purpose to buffering cell inputs, there is also no purpose to buffering
                                                // combinatorial cell outputs in case the cell converges within one cycle. (To convince yourself that
                                                // this optimization is valid, consider that, since the cell converged within one cycle, it would not
                                                // have any buffered wires if they were not output ports. Imagine inlining the cell's eval() function,
                                                // and consider the fate of the localized wires that used to be output ports.)
                                                //
                                                // Unlike cell inputs (which are never buffered), it is not possible to know apriori whether the cell
                                                // (which may be late bound) will converge immediately. Because of this, the choice between using .curr
                                                // (appropriate for buffered outputs) and .next (appropriate for unbuffered outputs) is made at runtime.
                                                if (cell_converged && is_cxxrtl_comb_port(cell, conn.first))
                                                        f << ".next;\n";
                                                else
                                                        f << ".curr;\n";
                                        }
                                }
                        };
                        f << indent << "if (" << mangle(cell) << access << "eval()) {\n";
                        inc_indent();
                                assign_from_outputs(/*cell_converged=*/true);
                        dec_indent();
                        f << indent << "} else {\n";
                        inc_indent();
                                f << indent << "converged = false;\n";
                                assign_from_outputs(/*cell_converged=*/false);
                        dec_indent();
                        f << indent << "}\n";
                }
        }

        void dump_assign(const RTLIL::SigSig &sigsig)
        {
                f << indent;
                dump_sigspec_lhs(sigsig.first);
                f << " = ";
                dump_sigspec_rhs(sigsig.second);
                f << ";\n";
        }

        void dump_case_rule(const RTLIL::CaseRule *rule)
        {
                for (auto action : rule->actions)
                        dump_assign(action);
                for (auto switch_ : rule->switches)
                        dump_switch_rule(switch_);
        }

        void dump_switch_rule(const RTLIL::SwitchRule *rule)
        {
                // The switch attributes are printed before the switch condition is captured.
                dump_attrs(rule);
                std::string signal_temp = fresh_temporary();
                f << indent << "const value<" << rule->signal.size() << "> &" << signal_temp << " = ";
                dump_sigspec(rule->signal, /*is_lhs=*/false);
                f << ";\n";

                bool first = true;
                for (auto case_ : rule->cases) {
                        // The case attributes (for nested cases) are printed before the if/else if/else statement.
                        dump_attrs(rule);
                        f << indent;
                        if (!first)
                                f << "} else ";
                        first = false;
                        if (!case_->compare.empty()) {
                                f << "if (";
                                bool first = true;
                                for (auto &compare : case_->compare) {
                                        if (!first)
                                                f << " || ";
                                        first = false;
                                        if (compare.is_fully_def()) {
                                                f << signal_temp << " == ";
                                                dump_sigspec(compare, /*is_lhs=*/false);
                                        } else if (compare.is_fully_const()) {
                                                RTLIL::Const compare_mask, compare_value;
                                                for (auto bit : compare.as_const()) {
                                                        switch (bit) {
                                                                case RTLIL::S0:
                                                                case RTLIL::S1:
                                                                        compare_mask.bits.push_back(RTLIL::S1);
                                                                        compare_value.bits.push_back(bit);
                                                                        break;

                                                                case RTLIL::Sx:
                                                                case RTLIL::Sz:
                                                                case RTLIL::Sa:
                                                                        compare_mask.bits.push_back(RTLIL::S0);
                                                                        compare_value.bits.push_back(RTLIL::S0);
                                                                        break;

                                                                default:
                                                                        log_assert(false);
                                                        }
                                                }
                                                f << "and_uu<" << compare.size() << ">(" << signal_temp << ", ";
                                                dump_const(compare_mask);
                                                f << ") == ";
                                                dump_const(compare_value);
                                        } else {
                                                log_assert(false);
                                        }
                                }
                                f << ") ";
                        }
                        f << "{\n";
                        inc_indent();
                                dump_case_rule(case_);
                        dec_indent();
                }
                f << indent << "}\n";
        }

        void dump_process(const RTLIL::Process *proc)
        {
                dump_attrs(proc);
                f << indent << "// process " << proc->name.str() << "\n";
                // The case attributes (for root case) are always empty.
                log_assert(proc->root_case.attributes.empty());
                dump_case_rule(&proc->root_case);
                for (auto sync : proc->syncs) {
                        RTLIL::SigBit sync_bit;
                        if (!sync->signal.empty()) {
                                sync_bit = sync->signal[0];
                                sync_bit = sigmaps[sync_bit.wire->module](sync_bit);
                        }

                        pool<std::string> events;
                        switch (sync->type) {
                                case RTLIL::STp:
                                        log_assert(sync_bit.wire != nullptr);
                                        events.insert("posedge_" + mangle(sync_bit));
                                        break;
                                case RTLIL::STn:
                                        log_assert(sync_bit.wire != nullptr);
                                        events.insert("negedge_" + mangle(sync_bit));
                                        break;
                                case RTLIL::STe:
                                        log_assert(sync_bit.wire != nullptr);
                                        events.insert("posedge_" + mangle(sync_bit));
                                        events.insert("negedge_" + mangle(sync_bit));
                                        break;

                                case RTLIL::STa:
                                        events.insert("true");
                                        break;

                                case RTLIL::ST0:
                                case RTLIL::ST1:
                                case RTLIL::STg:
                                case RTLIL::STi:
                                        log_assert(false);
                        }
                        if (!events.empty()) {
                                f << indent << "if (";
                                bool first = true;
                                for (auto &event : events) {
                                        if (!first)
                                                f << " || ";
                                        first = false;
                                        f << event;
                                }
                                f << ") {\n";
                                inc_indent();
                                        for (auto action : sync->actions)
                                                dump_assign(action);
                                dec_indent();
                                f << indent << "}\n";
                        }
                }
        }

        void dump_wire(const RTLIL::Wire *wire, bool is_local_context)
        {
                if (elided_wires.count(wire))
                        return;

                if (localized_wires[wire] && is_local_context) {
                        dump_attrs(wire);
                        f << indent << "value<" << wire->width << "> " << mangle(wire) << ";\n";
                }
                if (!localized_wires[wire] && !is_local_context) {
                        std::string width;
                        if (wire->module->has_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)) && wire->has_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_width))) {
                                width = wire->get_string_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_width));
                        } else {
                                width = std::to_string(wire->width);
                        }

                        dump_attrs(wire);
                        f << indent;
                        if (wire->port_input && wire->port_output)
                                f << "/*inout*/ ";
                        else if (wire->port_input)
                                f << "/*input*/ ";
                        else if (wire->port_output)
                                f << "/*output*/ ";
                        f << (unbuffered_wires[wire] ? "value" : "wire") << "<" << width << "> " << mangle(wire);
                        if (wire->has_attribute(ID::init)) {
                                f << " ";
                                dump_const_init(wire->attributes.at(ID::init));
                        }
                        f << ";\n";
                        if (edge_wires[wire]) {
                                if (unbuffered_wires[wire]) {
                                        f << indent << "value<" << width << "> prev_" << mangle(wire);
                                        if (wire->has_attribute(ID::init)) {
                                                f << " ";
                                                dump_const_init(wire->attributes.at(ID::init));
                                        }
                                        f << ";\n";
                                }
                                for (auto edge_type : edge_types) {
                                        if (edge_type.first.wire == wire) {
                                                std::string prev, next;
                                                if (unbuffered_wires[wire]) {
                                                        prev = "prev_" + mangle(edge_type.first.wire);
                                                        next =           mangle(edge_type.first.wire);
                                                } else {
                                                        prev = mangle(edge_type.first.wire) + ".curr";
                                                        next = mangle(edge_type.first.wire) + ".next";
                                                }
                                                prev += ".slice<" + std::to_string(edge_type.first.offset) + ">().val()";
                                                next += ".slice<" + std::to_string(edge_type.first.offset) + ">().val()";
                                                if (edge_type.second != RTLIL::STn) {
                                                        f << indent << "bool posedge_" << mangle(edge_type.first) << "() const {\n";
                                                        inc_indent();
                                                                f << indent << "return !" << prev << " && " << next << ";\n";
                                                        dec_indent();
                                                        f << indent << "}\n";
                                                }
                                                if (edge_type.second != RTLIL::STp) {
                                                        f << indent << "bool negedge_" << mangle(edge_type.first) << "() const {\n";
                                                        inc_indent();
                                                                f << indent << "return " << prev << " && !" << next << ";\n";
                                                        dec_indent();
                                                        f << indent << "}\n";
                                                }
                                        }
                                }
                        }
                }
        }

        void dump_memory(RTLIL::Module *module, const RTLIL::Memory *memory)
        {
                vector<const RTLIL::Cell*> init_cells;
                for (auto cell : module->cells())
                        if (cell->type == ID($meminit) && cell->getParam(ID::MEMID).decode_string() == memory->name.str())
                                init_cells.push_back(cell);

                std::sort(init_cells.begin(), init_cells.end(), [](const RTLIL::Cell *a, const RTLIL::Cell *b) {
                        int a_addr = a->getPort(ID::ADDR).as_int(), b_addr = b->getPort(ID::ADDR).as_int();
                        int a_prio = a->getParam(ID::PRIORITY).as_int(), b_prio = b->getParam(ID::PRIORITY).as_int();
                        return a_prio > b_prio || (a_prio == b_prio && a_addr < b_addr);
                });

                dump_attrs(memory);
                f << indent << "memory<" << memory->width << "> " << mangle(memory)
                            << " { " << memory->size << "u";
                if (init_cells.empty()) {
                        f << " };\n";
                } else {
                        f << ",\n";
                        inc_indent();
                                for (auto cell : init_cells) {
                                        dump_attrs(cell);
                                        RTLIL::Const data = cell->getPort(ID::DATA).as_const();
                                        size_t width = cell->getParam(ID::WIDTH).as_int();
                                        size_t words = cell->getParam(ID::WORDS).as_int();
                                        f << indent << "memory<" << memory->width << ">::init<" << words << "> { "
                                                    << stringf("%#x", cell->getPort(ID::ADDR).as_int()) << ", {";
                                        inc_indent();
                                                for (size_t n = 0; n < words; n++) {
                                                        if (n % 4 == 0)
                                                                f << "\n" << indent;
                                                        else
                                                                f << " ";
                                                        dump_const(data, width, n * width, /*fixed_width=*/true);
                                                        f << ",";
                                                }
                                        dec_indent();
                                        f << "\n" << indent << "}},\n";
                                }
                        dec_indent();
                        f << indent << "};\n";
                }
        }

        void dump_eval_method(RTLIL::Module *module)
        {
                inc_indent();
                        f << indent << "bool converged = " << (eval_converges.at(module) ? "true" : "false") << ";\n";
                        if (!module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox))) {
                                for (auto wire : module->wires()) {
                                        if (edge_wires[wire]) {
                                                for (auto edge_type : edge_types) {
                                                        if (edge_type.first.wire == wire) {
                                                                if (edge_type.second != RTLIL::STn) {
                                                                        f << indent << "bool posedge_" << mangle(edge_type.first) << " = ";
                                                                        f << "this->posedge_" << mangle(edge_type.first) << "();\n";
                                                                }
                                                                if (edge_type.second != RTLIL::STp) {
                                                                        f << indent << "bool negedge_" << mangle(edge_type.first) << " = ";
                                                                        f << "this->negedge_" << mangle(edge_type.first) << "();\n";
                                                                }
                                                        }
                                                }
                                        }
                                }
                                for (auto wire : module->wires())
                                        dump_wire(wire, /*is_local_context=*/true);
                                for (auto node : schedule[module]) {
                                        switch (node.type) {
                                                case FlowGraph::Node::Type::CONNECT:
                                                        dump_connect(node.connect);
                                                        break;
                                                case FlowGraph::Node::Type::CELL_SYNC:
                                                        dump_cell_sync(node.cell);
                                                        break;
                                                case FlowGraph::Node::Type::CELL_EVAL:
                                                        dump_cell_eval(node.cell);
                                                        break;
                                                case FlowGraph::Node::Type::PROCESS:
                                                        dump_process(node.process);
                                                        break;
                                        }
                                }
                        }
                        f << indent << "return converged;\n";
                dec_indent();
        }

        void dump_commit_method(RTLIL::Module *module)
        {
                inc_indent();
                        f << indent << "bool changed = false;\n";
                        for (auto wire : module->wires()) {
                                if (elided_wires.count(wire))
                                        continue;
                                if (unbuffered_wires[wire]) {
                                        if (edge_wires[wire])
                                                f << indent << "prev_" << mangle(wire) << " = " << mangle(wire) << ";\n";
                                        continue;
                                }
                                if (!module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)) || wire->port_id != 0)
                                        f << indent << "changed |= " << mangle(wire) << ".commit();\n";
                        }
                        if (!module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox))) {
                                for (auto memory : module->memories) {
                                        if (!writable_memories[memory.second])
                                                continue;
                                        f << indent << "changed |= " << mangle(memory.second) << ".commit();\n";
                                }
                                for (auto cell : module->cells()) {
                                        if (is_internal_cell(cell->type))
                                                continue;
                                        const char *access = is_cxxrtl_blackbox_cell(cell) ? "->" : ".";
                                        f << indent << "changed |= " << mangle(cell) << access << "commit();\n";
                                }
                        }
                        f << indent << "return changed;\n";
                dec_indent();
        }

        void dump_debug_info_method(RTLIL::Module *module)
        {
                size_t count_public_wires = 0;
                size_t count_const_wires = 0;
                size_t count_alias_wires = 0;
                size_t count_member_wires = 0;
                size_t count_skipped_wires = 0;
                size_t count_driven_sync = 0;
                size_t count_driven_comb = 0;
                size_t count_undriven = 0;
                size_t count_mixed_driver = 0;
                inc_indent();
                        f << indent << "assert(path.empty() || path[path.size() - 1] == ' ');\n";
                        for (auto wire : module->wires()) {
                                if (wire->name[0] != '\\')
                                        continue;
                                if (module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)) && (wire->port_id == 0))
                                        continue;
                                count_public_wires++;
                                if (debug_const_wires.count(wire)) {
                                        // Wire tied to a constant
                                        f << indent << "static const value<" << wire->width << "> const_" << mangle(wire) << " = ";
                                        dump_const(debug_const_wires[wire]);
                                        f << ";\n";
                                        f << indent << "items.add(path + " << escape_cxx_string(get_hdl_name(wire));
                                        f << ", debug_item(const_" << mangle(wire) << ", ";
                                        f << wire->start_offset << "));\n";
                                        count_const_wires++;
                                } else if (debug_alias_wires.count(wire)) {
                                        // Alias of a member wire
                                        f << indent << "items.add(path + " << escape_cxx_string(get_hdl_name(wire));
                                        f << ", debug_item(debug_alias(), " << mangle(debug_alias_wires[wire]) << ", ";
                                        f << wire->start_offset << "));\n";
                                        count_alias_wires++;
                                } else if (!localized_wires.count(wire)) {
                                        // Member wire
                                        std::vector<std::string> flags;

                                        if (wire->port_input && wire->port_output)
                                                flags.push_back("INOUT");
                                        else if (wire->port_input)
                                                flags.push_back("INPUT");
                                        else if (wire->port_output)
                                                flags.push_back("OUTPUT");

                                        bool has_driven_sync = false;
                                        bool has_driven_comb = false;
                                        bool has_undriven = false;
                                        SigSpec sig(wire);
                                        for (auto bit : sig.bits())
                                                if (!bit_has_state.count(bit))
                                                        has_undriven = true;
                                                else if (bit_has_state[bit])
                                                        has_driven_sync = true;
                                                else
                                                        has_driven_comb = true;
                                        if (has_driven_sync)
                                                flags.push_back("DRIVEN_SYNC");
                                        if (has_driven_sync && !has_driven_comb && !has_undriven)
                                                count_driven_sync++;
                                        if (has_driven_comb)
                                                flags.push_back("DRIVEN_COMB");
                                        if (!has_driven_sync && has_driven_comb && !has_undriven)
                                                count_driven_comb++;
                                        if (has_undriven)
                                                flags.push_back("UNDRIVEN");
                                        if (!has_driven_sync && !has_driven_comb && has_undriven)
                                                count_undriven++;
                                        if (has_driven_sync + has_driven_comb + has_undriven > 1)
                                                count_mixed_driver++;

                                        f << indent << "items.add(path + " << escape_cxx_string(get_hdl_name(wire));
                                        f << ", debug_item(" << mangle(wire) << ", ";
                                        f << wire->start_offset;
                                        bool first = true;
                                        for (auto flag : flags) {
                                                if (first) {
                                                        first = false;
                                                        f << ", ";
                                                } else {
                                                        f << "|";
                                                }
                                                f << "debug_item::" << flag;
                                        }
                                        f << "));\n";
                                        count_member_wires++;
                                } else {
                                        count_skipped_wires++;
                                }
                        }
                        if (!module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox))) {
                                for (auto &memory_it : module->memories) {
                                        if (memory_it.first[0] != '\\')
                                                continue;
                                        f << indent << "items.add(path + " << escape_cxx_string(get_hdl_name(memory_it.second));
                                        f << ", debug_item(" << mangle(memory_it.second) << ", ";
                                        f << memory_it.second->start_offset << "));\n";
                                }
                                for (auto cell : module->cells()) {
                                        if (is_internal_cell(cell->type))
                                                continue;
                                        const char *access = is_cxxrtl_blackbox_cell(cell) ? "->" : ".";
                                        f << indent << mangle(cell) << access << "debug_info(items, ";
                                        f << "path + " << escape_cxx_string(get_hdl_name(cell) + ' ') << ");\n";
                                }
                        }
                dec_indent();

                log_debug("Debug information statistics for module `%s':\n", log_id(module));
                log_debug("  Public wires: %zu, of which:\n", count_public_wires);
                log_debug("    Const wires:  %zu\n", count_const_wires);
                log_debug("    Alias wires:  %zu\n", count_alias_wires);
                log_debug("    Member wires: %zu, of which:\n", count_member_wires);
                log_debug("      Driven sync:  %zu\n", count_driven_sync);
                log_debug("      Driven comb:  %zu\n", count_driven_comb);
                log_debug("      Undriven:     %zu\n", count_undriven);
                log_debug("      Mixed driver: %zu\n", count_mixed_driver);
                log_debug("    Other wires:  %zu (no debug information)\n", count_skipped_wires);
        }

        void dump_metadata_map(const dict<RTLIL::IdString, RTLIL::Const> &metadata_map)
        {
                if (metadata_map.empty()) {
                        f << "metadata_map()";
                        return;
                }
                f << "metadata_map({\n";
                inc_indent();
                        for (auto metadata_item : metadata_map) {
                                if (!metadata_item.first.begins_with("\\"))
                                        continue;
                                f << indent << "{ " << escape_cxx_string(metadata_item.first.str().substr(1)) << ", ";
                                if (metadata_item.second.flags & RTLIL::CONST_FLAG_REAL) {
                                        f << std::showpoint << std::stod(metadata_item.second.decode_string()) << std::noshowpoint;
                                } else if (metadata_item.second.flags & RTLIL::CONST_FLAG_STRING) {
                                        f << escape_cxx_string(metadata_item.second.decode_string());
                                } else {
                                        f << metadata_item.second.as_int(/*is_signed=*/metadata_item.second.flags & RTLIL::CONST_FLAG_SIGNED);
                                        if (!(metadata_item.second.flags & RTLIL::CONST_FLAG_SIGNED))
                                                f << "u";
                                }
                                f << " },\n";
                        }
                dec_indent();
                f << indent << "})";
        }

        void dump_module_intf(RTLIL::Module *module)
        {
                dump_attrs(module);
                if (module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox))) {
                        if (module->has_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_template)))
                                f << indent << "template" << template_params(module, /*is_decl=*/true) << "\n";
                        f << indent << "struct " << mangle(module) << " : public module {\n";
                        inc_indent();
                                for (auto wire : module->wires()) {
                                        if (wire->port_id != 0)
                                                dump_wire(wire, /*is_local_context=*/false);
                                }
                                f << "\n";
                                f << indent << "bool eval() override {\n";
                                dump_eval_method(module);
                                f << indent << "}\n";
                                f << "\n";
                                f << indent << "bool commit() override {\n";
                                dump_commit_method(module);
                                f << indent << "}\n";
                                f << "\n";
                                if (debug_info) {
                                        f << indent << "void debug_info(debug_items &items, std::string path = \"\") override {\n";
                                        dump_debug_info_method(module);
                                        f << indent << "}\n";
                                        f << "\n";
                                }
                                f << indent << "static std::unique_ptr<" << mangle(module);
                                f << template_params(module, /*is_decl=*/false) << "> ";
                                f << "create(std::string name, metadata_map parameters, metadata_map attributes);\n";
                        dec_indent();
                        f << indent << "}; // struct " << mangle(module) << "\n";
                        f << "\n";
                        if (blackbox_specializations.count(module)) {
                                // If templated black boxes are used, the constructor of any module which includes the black box cell
                                // (which calls the declared but not defined in the generated code `create` function) may only be used
                                // if (a) the create function is defined in the same translation unit, or (b) the create function has
                                // a forward-declared explicit specialization.
                                //
                                // Option (b) makes it possible to have the generated code and the black box implementation in different
                                // translation units, which is convenient. Of course, its downside is that black boxes must predefine
                                // a specialization for every combination of parameters the generated code may use; but since the main
                                // purpose of templated black boxes is abstracting over datapath width, it is expected that there would
                                // be very few such combinations anyway.
                                for (auto specialization : blackbox_specializations[module]) {
                                        f << indent << "template<>\n";
                                        f << indent << "std::unique_ptr<" << mangle(module) << specialization << "> ";
                                        f << mangle(module) << specialization << "::";
                                        f << "create(std::string name, metadata_map parameters, metadata_map attributes);\n";
                                        f << "\n";
                                }
                        }
                } else {
                        f << indent << "struct " << mangle(module) << " : public module {\n";
                        inc_indent();
                                for (auto wire : module->wires())
                                        dump_wire(wire, /*is_local_context=*/false);
                                f << "\n";
                                bool has_memories = false;
                                for (auto memory : module->memories) {
                                        dump_memory(module, memory.second);
                                        has_memories = true;
                                }
                                if (has_memories)
                                        f << "\n";
                                bool has_cells = false;
                                for (auto cell : module->cells()) {
                                        if (is_internal_cell(cell->type))
                                                continue;
                                        dump_attrs(cell);
                                        RTLIL::Module *cell_module = module->design->module(cell->type);
                                        log_assert(cell_module != nullptr);
                                        if (cell_module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox))) {
                                                f << indent << "std::unique_ptr<" << mangle(cell_module) << template_args(cell) << "> ";
                                                f << mangle(cell) << " = " << mangle(cell_module) << template_args(cell);
                                                f << "::create(" << escape_cxx_string(get_hdl_name(cell)) << ", ";
                                                dump_metadata_map(cell->parameters);
                                                f << ", ";
                                                dump_metadata_map(cell->attributes);
                                                f << ");\n";
                                        } else {
                                                f << indent << mangle(cell_module) << " " << mangle(cell) << ";\n";
                                        }
                                        has_cells = true;
                                }
                                if (has_cells)
                                        f << "\n";
                                f << indent << mangle(module) << "() {}\n";
                                if (has_cells) {
                                        f << indent << mangle(module) << "(adopt, " << mangle(module) << " other) :\n";
                                        bool first = true;
                                        for (auto cell : module->cells()) {
                                                if (is_internal_cell(cell->type))
                                                        continue;
                                                if (first) {
                                                        first = false;
                                                } else {
                                                        f << ",\n";
                                                }
                                                RTLIL::Module *cell_module = module->design->module(cell->type);
                                                if (cell_module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox))) {
                                                        f << indent << "  " << mangle(cell) << "(std::move(other." << mangle(cell) << "))";
                                                } else {
                                                        f << indent << "  " << mangle(cell) << "(adopt {}, std::move(other." << mangle(cell) << "))";
                                                }
                                        }
                                        f << " {\n";
                                        inc_indent();
                                                for (auto cell : module->cells()) {
                                                        if (is_internal_cell(cell->type))
                                                                continue;
                                                        RTLIL::Module *cell_module = module->design->module(cell->type);
                                                        if (cell_module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)))
                                                                f << indent << mangle(cell) << "->reset();\n";
                                                }
                                        dec_indent();
                                        f << indent << "}\n";
                                } else {
                                        f << indent << mangle(module) << "(adopt, " << mangle(module) << " other) {}\n";
                                }
                                f << "\n";
                                f << indent << "void reset() override {\n";
                                inc_indent();
                                        f << indent << "*this = " << mangle(module) << "(adopt {}, std::move(*this));\n";
                                dec_indent();
                                f << indent << "}\n";
                                f << "\n";
                                f << indent << "bool eval() override;\n";
                                f << indent << "bool commit() override;\n";
                                if (debug_info)
                                        f << indent << "void debug_info(debug_items &items, std::string path = \"\") override;\n";
                        dec_indent();
                        f << indent << "}; // struct " << mangle(module) << "\n";
                        f << "\n";
                }
        }

        void dump_module_impl(RTLIL::Module *module)
        {
                if (module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)))
                        return;
                f << indent << "bool " << mangle(module) << "::eval() {\n";
                dump_eval_method(module);
                f << indent << "}\n";
                f << "\n";
                f << indent << "bool " << mangle(module) << "::commit() {\n";
                dump_commit_method(module);
                f << indent << "}\n";
                f << "\n";
                if (debug_info) {
                        f << indent << "void " << mangle(module) << "::debug_info(debug_items &items, std::string path) {\n";
                        dump_debug_info_method(module);
                        f << indent << "}\n";
                        f << "\n";
                }
        }

        void dump_design(RTLIL::Design *design)
        {
                RTLIL::Module *top_module = nullptr;
                std::vector<RTLIL::Module*> modules;
                TopoSort<RTLIL::Module*> topo_design;
                for (auto module : design->modules()) {
                        if (!design->selected_module(module))
                                continue;
                        if (module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)))
                                modules.push_back(module); // cxxrtl blackboxes first
                        if (module->get_blackbox_attribute() || module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)))
                                continue;
                        if (module->get_bool_attribute(ID::top))
                                top_module = module;

                        topo_design.node(module);
                        for (auto cell : module->cells()) {
                                if (is_internal_cell(cell->type) || is_cxxrtl_blackbox_cell(cell))
                                        continue;
                                RTLIL::Module *cell_module = design->module(cell->type);
                                log_assert(cell_module != nullptr);
                                topo_design.edge(cell_module, module);
                        }
                }
                bool no_loops = topo_design.sort();
                log_assert(no_loops);
                modules.insert(modules.end(), topo_design.sorted.begin(), topo_design.sorted.end());

                if (split_intf) {
                        // The only thing more depraved than include guards, is mangling filenames to turn them into include guards.
                        std::string include_guard = design_ns + "_header";
                        std::transform(include_guard.begin(), include_guard.end(), include_guard.begin(), ::toupper);

                        f << "#ifndef " << include_guard << "\n";
                        f << "#define " << include_guard << "\n";
                        f << "\n";
                        if (top_module != nullptr && debug_info) {
                                f << "#include <backends/cxxrtl/cxxrtl_capi.h>\n";
                                f << "\n";
                                f << "#ifdef __cplusplus\n";
                                f << "extern \"C\" {\n";
                                f << "#endif\n";
                                f << "\n";
                                f << "cxxrtl_toplevel " << design_ns << "_create();\n";
                                f << "\n";
                                f << "#ifdef __cplusplus\n";
                                f << "}\n";
                                f << "#endif\n";
                                f << "\n";
                        } else {
                                f << "// The CXXRTL C API is not available because the design is built without debug information.\n";
                                f << "\n";
                        }
                        f << "#ifdef __cplusplus\n";
                        f << "\n";
                        f << "#include <backends/cxxrtl/cxxrtl.h>\n";
                        f << "\n";
                        f << "using namespace cxxrtl;\n";
                        f << "\n";
                        f << "namespace " << design_ns << " {\n";
                        f << "\n";
                        for (auto module : modules)
                                dump_module_intf(module);
                        f << "} // namespace " << design_ns << "\n";
                        f << "\n";
                        f << "#endif // __cplusplus\n";
                        f << "\n";
                        f << "#endif\n";
                        *intf_f << f.str(); f.str("");
                }

                if (split_intf)
                        f << "#include \"" << intf_filename << "\"\n";
                else
                        f << "#include <backends/cxxrtl/cxxrtl.h>\n";
                f << "\n";
                f << "#if defined(CXXRTL_INCLUDE_CAPI_IMPL) || \\\n";
                f << "    defined(CXXRTL_INCLUDE_VCD_CAPI_IMPL)\n";
                f << "#include <backends/cxxrtl/cxxrtl_capi.cc>\n";
                f << "#endif\n";
                f << "\n";
                f << "#if defined(CXXRTL_INCLUDE_VCD_CAPI_IMPL)\n";
                f << "#include <backends/cxxrtl/cxxrtl_vcd_capi.cc>\n";
                f << "#endif\n";
                f << "\n";
                f << "using namespace cxxrtl_yosys;\n";
                f << "\n";
                f << "namespace " << design_ns << " {\n";
                f << "\n";
                for (auto module : modules) {
                        if (!split_intf)
                                dump_module_intf(module);
                        dump_module_impl(module);
                }
                f << "} // namespace " << design_ns << "\n";
                f << "\n";
                if (top_module != nullptr && debug_info) {
                        f << "extern \"C\"\n";
                        f << "cxxrtl_toplevel " << design_ns << "_create() {\n";
                        inc_indent();
                                std::string top_type = design_ns + "::" + mangle(top_module);
                                f << indent << "return new _cxxrtl_toplevel { ";
                                f << "std::unique_ptr<" << top_type << ">(new " + top_type + ")";
                                f << " };\n";
                        dec_indent();
                        f << "}\n";
                }

                *impl_f << f.str(); f.str("");
        }

        // Edge-type sync rules require us to emit edge detectors, which require coordination between
        // eval and commit phases. To do this we need to collect them upfront.
        //
        // Note that the simulator commit phase operates at wire granularity but edge-type sync rules
        // operate at wire bit granularity; it is possible to have code similar to:
        //     wire [3:0] clocks;
        //     always @(posedge clocks[0]) ...
        // To handle this we track edge sensitivity both for wires and wire bits.
        void register_edge_signal(SigMap &sigmap, RTLIL::SigSpec signal, RTLIL::SyncType type)
        {
                signal = sigmap(signal);
                log_assert(signal.is_wire() && signal.is_bit());
                log_assert(type == RTLIL::STp || type == RTLIL::STn || type == RTLIL::STe);

                RTLIL::SigBit sigbit = signal[0];
                if (!edge_types.count(sigbit))
                        edge_types[sigbit] = type;
                else if (edge_types[sigbit] != type)
                        edge_types[sigbit] = RTLIL::STe;
                edge_wires.insert(signal.as_wire());
        }

        void analyze_design(RTLIL::Design *design)
        {
                bool has_feedback_arcs = false;
                bool has_buffered_comb_wires = false;

                for (auto module : design->modules()) {
                        if (!design->selected_module(module))
                                continue;

                        SigMap &sigmap = sigmaps[module];
                        sigmap.set(module);

                        if (module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox))) {
                                for (auto port : module->ports) {
                                        RTLIL::Wire *wire = module->wire(port);
                                        if (wire->port_input && !wire->port_output)
                                                unbuffered_wires.insert(wire);
                                        if (wire->has_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_edge))) {
                                                RTLIL::Const edge_attr = wire->attributes[ID(cxxrtl_edge)];
                                                if (!(edge_attr.flags & RTLIL::CONST_FLAG_STRING) || (int)edge_attr.decode_string().size() != GetSize(wire))
                                                        log_cmd_error("Attribute `cxxrtl_edge' of port `%s.%s' is not a string with one character per bit.\n",
                                                                      log_id(module), log_signal(wire));

                                                std::string edges = wire->get_string_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_edge));
                                                for (int i = 0; i < GetSize(wire); i++) {
                                                        RTLIL::SigSpec wire_sig = wire;
                                                        switch (edges[i]) {
                                                                case '-': break;
                                                                case 'p': register_edge_signal(sigmap, wire_sig[i], RTLIL::STp); break;
                                                                case 'n': register_edge_signal(sigmap, wire_sig[i], RTLIL::STn); break;
                                                                case 'a': register_edge_signal(sigmap, wire_sig[i], RTLIL::STe); break;
                                                                default:
                                                                        log_cmd_error("Attribute `cxxrtl_edge' of port `%s.%s' contains specifiers "
                                                                                      "other than '-', 'p', 'n', or 'a'.\n",
                                                                                log_id(module), log_signal(wire));
                                                        }
                                                }
                                        }
                                }

                                // Black boxes converge by default, since their implementations are quite unlikely to require
                                // internal propagation of comb signals.
                                eval_converges[module] = true;
                                continue;
                        }

                        FlowGraph flow;

                        for (auto conn : module->connections())
                                flow.add_node(conn);

                        dict<const RTLIL::Cell*, FlowGraph::Node*> memrw_cell_nodes;
                        dict<std::pair<RTLIL::SigBit, const RTLIL::Memory*>,
                             pool<const RTLIL::Cell*>> memwr_per_domain;
                        for (auto cell : module->cells()) {
                                if (!cell->known())
                                        log_cmd_error("Unknown cell `%s'.\n", log_id(cell->type));

                                RTLIL::Module *cell_module = design->module(cell->type);
                                if (cell_module &&
                                    cell_module->get_blackbox_attribute() &&
                                    !cell_module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)))
                                        log_cmd_error("External blackbox cell `%s' is not marked as a CXXRTL blackbox.\n", log_id(cell->type));

                                if (cell_module &&
                                    cell_module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)) &&
                                    cell_module->get_bool_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_template)))
                                        blackbox_specializations[cell_module].insert(template_args(cell));

                                FlowGraph::Node *node = flow.add_node(cell);

                                // Various DFF cells are treated like posedge/negedge processes, see above for details.
                                if (cell->type.in(ID($dff), ID($dffe), ID($adff), ID($adffe), ID($dffsr), ID($dffsre), ID($sdff), ID($sdffe), ID($sdffce))) {
                                        if (cell->getPort(ID::CLK).is_wire())
                                                register_edge_signal(sigmap, cell->getPort(ID::CLK),
                                                        cell->parameters[ID::CLK_POLARITY].as_bool() ? RTLIL::STp : RTLIL::STn);
                                }
                                // Similar for memory port cells.
                                if (cell->type.in(ID($memrd), ID($memwr))) {
                                        if (cell->getParam(ID::CLK_ENABLE).as_bool()) {
                                                if (cell->getPort(ID::CLK).is_wire())
                                                        register_edge_signal(sigmap, cell->getPort(ID::CLK),
                                                                cell->parameters[ID::CLK_POLARITY].as_bool() ? RTLIL::STp : RTLIL::STn);
                                        }
                                        memrw_cell_nodes[cell] = node;
                                }
                                // Optimize access to read-only memories.
                                if (cell->type == ID($memwr))
                                        writable_memories.insert(module->memories[cell->getParam(ID::MEMID).decode_string()]);
                                // Collect groups of memory write ports in the same domain.
                                if (cell->type == ID($memwr) && cell->getParam(ID::CLK_ENABLE).as_bool() && cell->getPort(ID::CLK).is_wire()) {
                                        RTLIL::SigBit clk_bit = sigmap(cell->getPort(ID::CLK))[0];
                                        const RTLIL::Memory *memory = module->memories[cell->getParam(ID::MEMID).decode_string()];
                                        memwr_per_domain[{clk_bit, memory}].insert(cell);
                                }
                                // Handling of packed memories is delegated to the `memory_unpack` pass, so we can rely on the presence
                                // of RTLIL memory objects and $memrd/$memwr/$meminit cells.
                                if (cell->type.in(ID($mem)))
                                        log_assert(false);
                        }
                        for (auto cell : module->cells()) {
                                // Collect groups of memory write ports read by every transparent read port.
                                if (cell->type == ID($memrd) && cell->getParam(ID::CLK_ENABLE).as_bool() && cell->getPort(ID::CLK).is_wire() &&
                                    cell->getParam(ID::TRANSPARENT).as_bool()) {
                                        RTLIL::SigBit clk_bit = sigmap(cell->getPort(ID::CLK))[0];
                                        const RTLIL::Memory *memory = module->memories[cell->getParam(ID::MEMID).decode_string()];
                                        for (auto memwr_cell : memwr_per_domain[{clk_bit, memory}]) {
                                                transparent_for[cell].insert(memwr_cell);
                                                // Our implementation of transparent $memrd cells reads \EN, \ADDR and \DATA from every $memwr cell
                                                // in the same domain, which isn't directly visible in the netlist. Add these uses explicitly.
                                                flow.add_uses(memrw_cell_nodes[cell], memwr_cell->getPort(ID::EN));
                                                flow.add_uses(memrw_cell_nodes[cell], memwr_cell->getPort(ID::ADDR));
                                                flow.add_uses(memrw_cell_nodes[cell], memwr_cell->getPort(ID::DATA));
                                        }
                                }
                        }

                        for (auto proc : module->processes) {
                                flow.add_node(proc.second);

                                for (auto sync : proc.second->syncs)
                                        switch (sync->type) {
                                                // Edge-type sync rules require pre-registration.
                                                case RTLIL::STp:
                                                case RTLIL::STn:
                                                case RTLIL::STe:
                                                        register_edge_signal(sigmap, sync->signal, sync->type);
                                                        break;

                                                // Level-type sync rules require no special handling.
                                                case RTLIL::ST0:
                                                case RTLIL::ST1:
                                                case RTLIL::STa:
                                                        break;

                                                case RTLIL::STg:
                                                        log_cmd_error("Global clock is not supported.\n");

                                                // Handling of init-type sync rules is delegated to the `proc_init` pass, so we can use the wire
                                                // attribute regardless of input.
                                                case RTLIL::STi:
                                                        log_assert(false);
                                        }
                        }

                        for (auto wire : module->wires()) {
                                if (!flow.is_elidable(wire)) continue;
                                if (wire->port_id != 0) continue;
                                if (wire->get_bool_attribute(ID::keep)) continue;
                                if (wire->name.begins_with("$") && !elide_internal) continue;
                                if (wire->name.begins_with("\\") && !elide_public) continue;
                                if (edge_wires[wire]) continue;
                                if (flow.wire_comb_defs[wire].size() > 1)
                                        log_cmd_error("Wire %s.%s has multiple drivers.\n", log_id(module), log_id(wire));
                                log_assert(flow.wire_comb_defs[wire].size() == 1);
                                elided_wires[wire] = **flow.wire_comb_defs[wire].begin();
                        }

                        dict<FlowGraph::Node*, pool<const RTLIL::Wire*>, hash_ptr_ops> node_defs;
                        for (auto wire_comb_def : flow.wire_comb_defs)
                                for (auto node : wire_comb_def.second)
                                        node_defs[node].insert(wire_comb_def.first);

                        Scheduler<FlowGraph::Node> scheduler;
                        dict<FlowGraph::Node*, Scheduler<FlowGraph::Node>::Vertex*, hash_ptr_ops> node_map;
                        for (auto node : flow.nodes)
                                node_map[node] = scheduler.add(node);
                        for (auto node_def : node_defs) {
                                auto vertex = node_map[node_def.first];
                                for (auto wire : node_def.second)
                                        for (auto succ_node : flow.wire_uses[wire]) {
                                                auto succ_vertex = node_map[succ_node];
                                                vertex->succs.insert(succ_vertex);
                                                succ_vertex->preds.insert(vertex);
                                        }
                        }

                        auto eval_order = scheduler.schedule();
                        pool<FlowGraph::Node*, hash_ptr_ops> evaluated;
                        pool<const RTLIL::Wire*> feedback_wires;
                        for (auto vertex : eval_order) {
                                auto node = vertex->data;
                                schedule[module].push_back(*node);
                                // Any wire that is an output of node vo and input of node vi where vo is scheduled later than vi
                                // is a feedback wire. Feedback wires indicate apparent logic loops in the design, which may be
                                // caused by a true logic loop, but usually are a benign result of dependency tracking that works
                                // on wire, not bit, level. Nevertheless, feedback wires cannot be localized.
                                evaluated.insert(node);
                                for (auto wire : node_defs[node])
                                        for (auto succ_node : flow.wire_uses[wire])
                                                if (evaluated[succ_node]) {
                                                        feedback_wires.insert(wire);
                                                        // Feedback wires may never be elided because feedback requires state, but the point of elision
                                                        // (and localization) is to eliminate state.
                                                        elided_wires.erase(wire);
                                                }
                        }

                        if (!feedback_wires.empty()) {
                                has_feedback_arcs = true;
                                log("Module `%s' contains feedback arcs through wires:\n", log_id(module));
                                for (auto wire : feedback_wires)
                                        log("  %s\n", log_id(wire));
                        }

                        for (auto wire : module->wires()) {
                                if (feedback_wires[wire]) continue;
                                if (wire->port_output && !module->get_bool_attribute(ID::top)) continue;
                                if (wire->name.begins_with("$") && !unbuffer_internal) continue;
                                if (wire->name.begins_with("\\") && !unbuffer_public) continue;
                                if (flow.wire_sync_defs.count(wire) > 0) continue;
                                unbuffered_wires.insert(wire);
                                if (edge_wires[wire]) continue;
                                if (wire->get_bool_attribute(ID::keep)) continue;
                                if (wire->port_input || wire->port_output) continue;
                                if (wire->name.begins_with("$") && !localize_internal) continue;
                                if (wire->name.begins_with("\\") && !localize_public) continue;
                                localized_wires.insert(wire);
                        }

                        // For maximum performance, the state of the simulation (which is the same as the set of its double buffered
                        // wires, since using a singly buffered wire for any kind of state introduces a race condition) should contain
                        // no wires attached to combinatorial outputs. Feedback wires, by definition, make that impossible. However,
                        // it is possible that a design with no feedback arcs would end up with doubly buffered wires in such cases
                        // as a wire with multiple drivers where one of them is combinatorial and the other is synchronous. Such designs
                        // also require more than one delta cycle to converge.
                        pool<const RTLIL::Wire*> buffered_comb_wires;
                        for (auto wire : module->wires()) {
                                if (flow.wire_comb_defs[wire].size() > 0 && !unbuffered_wires[wire] && !feedback_wires[wire])
                                        buffered_comb_wires.insert(wire);
                        }
                        if (!buffered_comb_wires.empty()) {
                                has_buffered_comb_wires = true;
                                log("Module `%s' contains buffered combinatorial wires:\n", log_id(module));
                                for (auto wire : buffered_comb_wires)
                                        log("  %s\n", log_id(wire));
                        }

                        eval_converges[module] = feedback_wires.empty() && buffered_comb_wires.empty();

                        for (auto item : flow.bit_has_state)
                                bit_has_state.insert(item);

                        if (debug_info) {
                                // Find wires that alias other wires or are tied to a constant; debug information can be enriched with these
                                // at essentially zero additional cost.
                                //
                                // Note that the information collected here can't be used for optimizing the netlist: debug information queries
                                // are pure and run on a design in a stable state, which allows assumptions that do not otherwise hold.
                                for (auto wire : module->wires()) {
                                        if (wire->name[0] != '\\')
                                                continue;
                                        if (!unbuffered_wires[wire])
                                                continue;
                                        const RTLIL::Wire *wire_it = wire;
                                        while (1) {
                                                if (!(flow.wire_def_elidable.count(wire_it) && flow.wire_def_elidable[wire_it]))
                                                        break; // not an alias: complex def
                                                log_assert(flow.wire_comb_defs[wire_it].size() == 1);
                                                FlowGraph::Node *node = *flow.wire_comb_defs[wire_it].begin();
                                                if (node->type != FlowGraph::Node::Type::CONNECT)
                                                        break; // not an alias: def by cell
                                                RTLIL::SigSpec rhs_sig = node->connect.second;
                                                if (rhs_sig.is_wire()) {
                                                        RTLIL::Wire *rhs_wire = rhs_sig.as_wire();
                                                        if (unbuffered_wires[rhs_wire]) {
                                                                wire_it = rhs_wire; // maybe an alias
                                                        } else {
                                                                debug_alias_wires[wire] = rhs_wire; // is an alias
                                                                break;
                                                        }
                                                } else if (rhs_sig.is_fully_const()) {
                                                        debug_const_wires[wire] = rhs_sig.as_const(); // is a const
                                                        break;
                                                } else {
                                                        break; // not an alias: complex rhs
                                                }
                                        }
                                }
                        }
                }
                if (has_feedback_arcs || has_buffered_comb_wires) {
                        // Although both non-feedback buffered combinatorial wires and apparent feedback wires may be eliminated
                        // by optimizing the design, if after `proc; flatten` there are any feedback wires remaining, it is very
                        // likely that these feedback wires are indicative of a true logic loop, so they get emphasized in the message.
                        const char *why_pessimistic = nullptr;
                        if (has_feedback_arcs)
                                why_pessimistic = "feedback wires";
                        else if (has_buffered_comb_wires)
                                why_pessimistic = "buffered combinatorial wires";
                        log_warning("Design contains %s, which require delta cycles during evaluation.\n", why_pessimistic);
                        if (!run_flatten)
                                log("Flattening may eliminate %s from the design.\n", why_pessimistic);
                        if (!run_proc)
                                log("Converting processes to netlists may eliminate %s from the design.\n", why_pessimistic);
                }
        }

        void check_design(RTLIL::Design *design, bool &has_top, bool &has_sync_init, bool &has_packed_mem)
        {
                has_sync_init = has_packed_mem = has_top = false;

                for (auto module : design->modules()) {
                        if (module->get_blackbox_attribute() && !module->has_attribute(ID(cxxrtl_blackbox)))
                                continue;

                        if (!design->selected_whole_module(module))
                                if (design->selected_module(module))
                                        log_cmd_error("Can't handle partially selected module `%s'!\n", id2cstr(module->name));
                        if (!design->selected_module(module))
                                continue;

                        if (module->get_bool_attribute(ID::top))
                                has_top = true;

                        for (auto proc : module->processes)
                                for (auto sync : proc.second->syncs)
                                        if (sync->type == RTLIL::STi)
                                                has_sync_init = true;

                        // The Mem constructor also checks for well-formedness of $meminit cells, if any.
                        for (auto &mem : Mem::get_all_memories(module))
                                if (mem.packed)
                                        has_packed_mem = true;
                }
        }

        void prepare_design(RTLIL::Design *design)
        {
                bool did_anything = false;
                bool has_top, has_sync_init, has_packed_mem;
                log_push();
                check_design(design, has_top, has_sync_init, has_packed_mem);
                if (run_hierarchy && !has_top) {
                        Pass::call(design, "hierarchy -auto-top");
                        did_anything = true;
                }
                if (run_flatten) {
                        Pass::call(design, "flatten");
                        did_anything = true;
                }
                if (run_proc) {
                        Pass::call(design, "proc");
                        did_anything = true;
                } else if (has_sync_init) {
                        // We're only interested in proc_init, but it depends on proc_prune and proc_clean, so call those
                        // in case they weren't already. (This allows `yosys foo.v -o foo.cc` to work.)
                        Pass::call(design, "proc_prune");
                        Pass::call(design, "proc_clean");
                        Pass::call(design, "proc_init");
                        did_anything = true;
                }
                if (has_packed_mem) {
                        Pass::call(design, "memory_unpack");
                        did_anything = true;
                }
                // Recheck the design if it was modified.
                if (did_anything)
                        check_design(design, has_top, has_sync_init, has_packed_mem);
                log_assert(has_top && !has_sync_init && !has_packed_mem);
                log_pop();
                if (did_anything)
                        log_spacer();
                analyze_design(design);
        }
};

struct CxxrtlBackend : public Backend {
        static const int DEFAULT_OPT_LEVEL = 6;
        static const int OPT_LEVEL_DEBUG = 4;
        static const int DEFAULT_DEBUG_LEVEL = 1;

        CxxrtlBackend() : Backend("cxxrtl", "convert design to C++ RTL simulation") { }
        void help() override
        {
                //   |---v---|---v---|---v---|---v---|---v---|---v---|---v---|---v---|---v---|---v---|
                log("\n");
                log("    write_cxxrtl [options] [filename]\n");
                log("\n");
                log("Write C++ code that simulates the design. The generated code requires a driver\n");
                log("that instantiates the design, toggles its clock, and interacts with its ports.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("The following driver may be used as an example for a design with a single clock\n");
                log("driving rising edge triggered flip-flops:\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    #include \"top.cc\"\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    int main() {\n");
                log("      cxxrtl_design::p_top top;\n");
                log("      top.step();\n");
                log("      while (1) {\n");
                log("        /* user logic */\n");
                log("        top.p_clk.set(false);\n");
                log("        top.step();\n");
                log("        top.p_clk.set(true);\n");
                log("        top.step();\n");
                log("      }\n");
                log("    }\n");
                log("\n");
                log("Note that CXXRTL simulations, just like the hardware they are simulating, are\n");
                log("subject to race conditions. If, in the example above, the user logic would run\n");
                log("simultaneously with the rising edge of the clock, the design would malfunction.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("This backend supports replacing parts of the design with black boxes implemented\n");
                log("in C++. If a module marked as a CXXRTL black box, its implementation is ignored,\n");
                log("and the generated code consists only of an interface and a factory function.\n");
                log("The driver must implement the factory function that creates an implementation of\n");
                log("the black box, taking into account the parameters it is instantiated with.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("For example, the following Verilog code defines a CXXRTL black box interface for\n");
                log("a synchronous debug sink:\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    (* cxxrtl_blackbox *)\n");
                log("    module debug(...);\n");
                log("      (* cxxrtl_edge = \"p\" *) input clk;\n");
                log("      input en;\n");
                log("      input [7:0] i_data;\n");
                log("      (* cxxrtl_sync *) output [7:0] o_data;\n");
                log("    endmodule\n");
                log("\n");
                log("For this HDL interface, this backend will generate the following C++ interface:\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    struct bb_p_debug : public module {\n");
                log("      value<1> p_clk;\n");
                log("      bool posedge_p_clk() const { /* ... */ }\n");
                log("      value<1> p_en;\n");
                log("      value<8> p_i_data;\n");
                log("      wire<8> p_o_data;\n");
                log("\n");
                log("      bool eval() override;\n");
                log("      bool commit() override;\n");
                log("\n");
                log("      static std::unique_ptr<bb_p_debug>\n");
                log("      create(std::string name, metadata_map parameters, metadata_map attributes);\n");
                log("    };\n");
                log("\n");
                log("The `create' function must be implemented by the driver. For example, it could\n");
                log("always provide an implementation logging the values to standard error stream:\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    namespace cxxrtl_design {\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    struct stderr_debug : public bb_p_debug {\n");
                log("      bool eval() override {\n");
                log("        if (posedge_p_clk() && p_en)\n");
                log("          fprintf(stderr, \"debug: %%02x\\n\", p_i_data.data[0]);\n");
                log("        p_o_data.next = p_i_data;\n");
                log("        return bb_p_debug::eval();\n");
                log("      }\n");
                log("    };\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    std::unique_ptr<bb_p_debug>\n");
                log("    bb_p_debug::create(std::string name, cxxrtl::metadata_map parameters,\n");
                log("                       cxxrtl::metadata_map attributes) {\n");
                log("      return std::make_unique<stderr_debug>();\n");
                log("    }\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    }\n");
                log("\n");
                log("For complex applications of black boxes, it is possible to parameterize their\n");
                log("port widths. For example, the following Verilog code defines a CXXRTL black box\n");
                log("interface for a configurable width debug sink:\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    (* cxxrtl_blackbox, cxxrtl_template = \"WIDTH\" *)\n");
                log("    module debug(...);\n");
                log("      parameter WIDTH = 8;\n");
                log("      (* cxxrtl_edge = \"p\" *) input clk;\n");
                log("      input en;\n");
                log("      (* cxxrtl_width = \"WIDTH\" *) input [WIDTH - 1:0] i_data;\n");
                log("      (* cxxrtl_width = \"WIDTH\" *) output [WIDTH - 1:0] o_data;\n");
                log("    endmodule\n");
                log("\n");
                log("For this parametric HDL interface, this backend will generate the following C++\n");
                log("interface (only the differences are shown):\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    template<size_t WIDTH>\n");
                log("    struct bb_p_debug : public module {\n");
                log("      // ...\n");
                log("      value<WIDTH> p_i_data;\n");
                log("      wire<WIDTH> p_o_data;\n");
                log("      // ...\n");
                log("      static std::unique_ptr<bb_p_debug<WIDTH>>\n");
                log("      create(std::string name, metadata_map parameters, metadata_map attributes);\n");
                log("    };\n");
                log("\n");
                log("The `create' function must be implemented by the driver, specialized for every\n");
                log("possible combination of template parameters. (Specialization is necessary to\n");
                log("enable separate compilation of generated code and black box implementations.)\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    template<size_t SIZE>\n");
                log("    struct stderr_debug : public bb_p_debug<SIZE> {\n");
                log("      // ...\n");
                log("    };\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    template<>\n");
                log("    std::unique_ptr<bb_p_debug<8>>\n");
                log("    bb_p_debug<8>::create(std::string name, cxxrtl::metadata_map parameters,\n");
                log("                          cxxrtl::metadata_map attributes) {\n");
                log("      return std::make_unique<stderr_debug<8>>();\n");
                log("    }\n");
                log("\n");
                log("The following attributes are recognized by this backend:\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    cxxrtl_blackbox\n");
                log("        only valid on modules. if specified, the module contents are ignored,\n");
                log("        and the generated code includes only the module interface and a factory\n");
                log("        function, which will be called to instantiate the module.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    cxxrtl_edge\n");
                log("        only valid on inputs of black boxes. must be one of \"p\", \"n\", \"a\".\n");
                log("        if specified on signal `clk`, the generated code includes edge detectors\n");
                log("        `posedge_p_clk()` (if \"p\"), `negedge_p_clk()` (if \"n\"), or both (if\n");
                log("        \"a\"), simplifying implementation of clocked black boxes.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    cxxrtl_template\n");
                log("        only valid on black boxes. must contain a space separated sequence of\n");
                log("        identifiers that have a corresponding black box parameters. for each\n");
                log("        of them, the generated code includes a `size_t` template parameter.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    cxxrtl_width\n");
                log("        only valid on ports of black boxes. must be a constant expression, which\n");
                log("        is directly inserted into generated code.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    cxxrtl_comb, cxxrtl_sync\n");
                log("        only valid on outputs of black boxes. if specified, indicates that every\n");
                log("        bit of the output port is driven, correspondingly, by combinatorial or\n");
                log("        synchronous logic. this knowledge is used for scheduling optimizations.\n");
                log("        if neither is specified, the output will be pessimistically treated as\n");
                log("        driven by both combinatorial and synchronous logic.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("The following options are supported by this backend:\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -header\n");
                log("        generate separate interface (.h) and implementation (.cc) files.\n");
                log("        if specified, the backend must be called with a filename, and filename\n");
                log("        of the interface is derived from filename of the implementation.\n");
                log("        otherwise, interface and implementation are generated together.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -namespace <ns-name>\n");
                log("        place the generated code into namespace <ns-name>. if not specified,\n");
                log("        \"cxxrtl_design\" is used.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -nohierarchy\n");
                log("        use design hierarchy as-is. in most designs, a top module should be\n");
                log("        present as it is exposed through the C API and has unbuffered outputs\n");
                log("        for improved performance; it will be determined automatically if absent.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -noflatten\n");
                log("        don't flatten the design. fully flattened designs can evaluate within\n");
                log("        one delta cycle if they have no combinatorial feedback.\n");
                log("        note that the debug interface and waveform dumps use full hierarchical\n");
                log("        names for all wires even in flattened designs.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -noproc\n");
                log("        don't convert processes to netlists. in most designs, converting\n");
                log("        processes significantly improves evaluation performance at the cost of\n");
                log("        slight increase in compilation time.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -O <level>\n");
                log("        set the optimization level. the default is -O%d. higher optimization\n", DEFAULT_OPT_LEVEL);
                log("        levels dramatically decrease compile and run time, and highest level\n");
                log("        possible for a design should be used.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -O0\n");
                log("        no optimization.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -O1\n");
                log("        localize internal wires if possible.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -O2\n");
                log("        like -O1, and unbuffer internal wires if possible.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -O3\n");
                log("        like -O2, and elide internal wires if possible.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -O4\n");
                log("        like -O3, and unbuffer public wires not marked (*keep*) if possible.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -O5\n");
                log("        like -O4, and localize public wires not marked (*keep*) if possible.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -O6\n");
                log("        like -O5, and elide public wires not marked (*keep*) if possible.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -Og\n");
                log("        highest optimization level that provides debug information for all\n");
                log("        public wires. currently, alias for -O%d.\n", OPT_LEVEL_DEBUG);
                log("\n");
                log("    -g <level>\n");
                log("        set the debug level. the default is -g%d. higher debug levels provide\n", DEFAULT_DEBUG_LEVEL);
                log("        more visibility and generate more code, but do not pessimize evaluation.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -g0\n");
                log("        no debug information.\n");
                log("\n");
                log("    -g1\n");
                log("        debug information for non-optimized public wires. this also makes it\n");
                log("        possible to use the C API.\n");
                log("\n");
        }

        void execute(std::ostream *&f, std::string filename, std::vector<std::string> args, RTLIL::Design *design) override
        {
                bool nohierarchy = false;
                bool noflatten = false;
                bool noproc = false;
                int opt_level = DEFAULT_OPT_LEVEL;
                int debug_level = DEFAULT_DEBUG_LEVEL;
                CxxrtlWorker worker;

                log_header(design, "Executing CXXRTL backend.\n");

                size_t argidx;
                for (argidx = 1; argidx < args.size(); argidx++)
                {
                        if (args[argidx] == "-nohierarchy") {
                                nohierarchy = true;
                                continue;
                        }
                        if (args[argidx] == "-noflatten") {
                                noflatten = true;
                                continue;
                        }
                        if (args[argidx] == "-noproc") {
                                noproc = true;
                                continue;
                        }
                        if (args[argidx] == "-Og") {
                                opt_level = OPT_LEVEL_DEBUG;
                                continue;
                        }
                        if (args[argidx] == "-O" && argidx+1 < args.size() && args[argidx+1] == "g") {
                                argidx++;
                                opt_level = OPT_LEVEL_DEBUG;
                                continue;
                        }
                        if (args[argidx] == "-O" && argidx+1 < args.size()) {
                                opt_level = std::stoi(args[++argidx]);
                                continue;
                        }
                        if (args[argidx].substr(0, 2) == "-O" && args[argidx].size() == 3 && isdigit(args[argidx][2])) {
                                opt_level = std::stoi(args[argidx].substr(2));
                                continue;
                        }
                        if (args[argidx] == "-g" && argidx+1 < args.size()) {
                                debug_level = std::stoi(args[++argidx]);
                                continue;
                        }
                        if (args[argidx].substr(0, 2) == "-g" && args[argidx].size() == 3 && isdigit(args[argidx][2])) {
                                debug_level = std::stoi(args[argidx].substr(2));
                                continue;
                        }
                        if (args[argidx] == "-header") {
                                worker.split_intf = true;
                                continue;
                        }
                        if (args[argidx] == "-namespace" && argidx+1 < args.size()) {
                                worker.design_ns = args[++argidx];
                                continue;
                        }
                        break;
                }
                extra_args(f, filename, args, argidx);

                worker.run_hierarchy = !nohierarchy;
                worker.run_flatten = !noflatten;
                worker.run_proc = !noproc;
                switch (opt_level) {
                        // the highest level here must match DEFAULT_OPT_LEVEL
                        case 6:
                                worker.elide_public = true;
                                YS_FALLTHROUGH
                        case 5:
                                worker.localize_public = true;
                                YS_FALLTHROUGH
                        case 4:
                                worker.unbuffer_public = true;
                                YS_FALLTHROUGH
                        case 3:
                                worker.elide_internal = true;
                                YS_FALLTHROUGH
                        case 2:
                                worker.localize_internal = true;
                                YS_FALLTHROUGH
                        case 1:
                                worker.unbuffer_internal = true;
                                YS_FALLTHROUGH
                        case 0:
                                break;
                        default:
                                log_cmd_error("Invalid optimization level %d.\n", opt_level);
                }
                switch (debug_level) {
                        // the highest level here must match DEFAULT_DEBUG_LEVEL
                        case 1:
                                worker.debug_info = true;
                                YS_FALLTHROUGH
                        case 0:
                                break;
                        default:
                                log_cmd_error("Invalid debug information level %d.\n", debug_level);
                }

                std::ofstream intf_f;
                if (worker.split_intf) {
                        if (filename == "<stdout>")
                                log_cmd_error("Option -header must be used with a filename.\n");

                        worker.intf_filename = filename.substr(0, filename.rfind('.')) + ".h";
                        intf_f.open(worker.intf_filename, std::ofstream::trunc);
                        if (intf_f.fail())
                                log_cmd_error("Can't open file `%s' for writing: %s\n",
                                              worker.intf_filename.c_str(), strerror(errno));

                        worker.intf_f = &intf_f;
                }
                worker.impl_f = f;

                worker.prepare_design(design);
                worker.dump_design(design);
        }
} CxxrtlBackend;

PRIVATE_NAMESPACE_END