3 @c Copyright (C) 1991-2021 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
6 @include configdoc.texi
7 @c (configdoc.texi is generated by the Makefile)
13 @macro gcctabopt{body}
19 @c Configure for the generation of man pages
47 @dircategory Software development
49 * Ld: (ld). The GNU linker.
54 This file documents the @sc{gnu} linker LD
55 @ifset VERSION_PACKAGE
56 @value{VERSION_PACKAGE}
58 version @value{VERSION}.
60 Copyright @copyright{} 1991-2021 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
62 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
63 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3
64 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
65 with no Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no
66 Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the
67 section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation License''.
71 @setchapternewpage odd
72 @settitle The GNU linker
77 @ifset VERSION_PACKAGE
78 @subtitle @value{VERSION_PACKAGE}
80 @subtitle Version @value{VERSION}
81 @author Steve Chamberlain
82 @author Ian Lance Taylor
87 \hfill Red Hat Inc\par
88 \hfill nickc\@credhat.com, doc\@redhat.com\par
89 \hfill {\it The GNU linker}\par
90 \hfill Edited by Jeffrey Osier (jeffrey\@cygnus.com)\par
92 \global\parindent=0pt % Steve likes it this way.
95 @vskip 0pt plus 1filll
96 @c man begin COPYRIGHT
97 Copyright @copyright{} 1991-2021 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
99 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
100 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3
101 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
102 with no Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no
103 Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the
104 section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation License''.
110 @c FIXME: Talk about importance of *order* of args, cmds to linker!
115 This file documents the @sc{gnu} linker ld
116 @ifset VERSION_PACKAGE
117 @value{VERSION_PACKAGE}
119 version @value{VERSION}.
121 This document is distributed under the terms of the GNU Free
122 Documentation License version 1.3. A copy of the license is included
123 in the section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation License''.
126 * Overview:: Overview
127 * Invocation:: Invocation
128 * Scripts:: Linker Scripts
129 * Plugins:: Linker Plugins
131 * Machine Dependent:: Machine Dependent Features
135 * H8/300:: ld and the H8/300
138 * Renesas:: ld and other Renesas micros
141 * ARM:: ld and the ARM family
144 * M68HC11/68HC12:: ld and the Motorola 68HC11 and 68HC12 families
147 * HPPA ELF32:: ld and HPPA 32-bit ELF
150 * M68K:: ld and Motorola 68K family
153 * MIPS:: ld and MIPS family
156 * PowerPC ELF32:: ld and PowerPC 32-bit ELF Support
159 * PowerPC64 ELF64:: ld and PowerPC64 64-bit ELF Support
162 * S/390 ELF:: ld and S/390 ELF Support
165 * SPU ELF:: ld and SPU ELF Support
168 * TI COFF:: ld and the TI COFF
171 * Win32:: ld and WIN32 (cygwin/mingw)
174 * Xtensa:: ld and Xtensa Processors
177 @ifclear SingleFormat
180 @c Following blank line required for remaining bug in makeinfo conds/menus
182 * Reporting Bugs:: Reporting Bugs
183 * MRI:: MRI Compatible Script Files
184 * GNU Free Documentation License:: GNU Free Documentation License
185 * LD Index:: LD Index
192 @cindex @sc{gnu} linker
193 @cindex what is this?
196 @c man begin SYNOPSIS
197 ld [@b{options}] @var{objfile} @dots{}
201 ar(1), nm(1), objcopy(1), objdump(1), readelf(1) and
202 the Info entries for @file{binutils} and
207 @c man begin DESCRIPTION
209 @command{ld} combines a number of object and archive files, relocates
210 their data and ties up symbol references. Usually the last step in
211 compiling a program is to run @command{ld}.
213 @command{ld} accepts Linker Command Language files written in
214 a superset of AT&T's Link Editor Command Language syntax,
215 to provide explicit and total control over the linking process.
219 This man page does not describe the command language; see the
220 @command{ld} entry in @code{info} for full details on the command
221 language and on other aspects of the GNU linker.
224 @ifclear SingleFormat
225 This version of @command{ld} uses the general purpose BFD libraries
226 to operate on object files. This allows @command{ld} to read, combine, and
227 write object files in many different formats---for example, COFF or
228 @code{a.out}. Different formats may be linked together to produce any
229 available kind of object file. @xref{BFD}, for more information.
232 Aside from its flexibility, the @sc{gnu} linker is more helpful than other
233 linkers in providing diagnostic information. Many linkers abandon
234 execution immediately upon encountering an error; whenever possible,
235 @command{ld} continues executing, allowing you to identify other errors
236 (or, in some cases, to get an output file in spite of the error).
243 @c man begin DESCRIPTION
245 The @sc{gnu} linker @command{ld} is meant to cover a broad range of situations,
246 and to be as compatible as possible with other linkers. As a result,
247 you have many choices to control its behavior.
253 * Options:: Command-line Options
254 * Environment:: Environment Variables
258 @section Command-line Options
266 The linker supports a plethora of command-line options, but in actual
267 practice few of them are used in any particular context.
268 @cindex standard Unix system
269 For instance, a frequent use of @command{ld} is to link standard Unix
270 object files on a standard, supported Unix system. On such a system, to
271 link a file @code{hello.o}:
274 ld -o @var{output} /lib/crt0.o hello.o -lc
277 This tells @command{ld} to produce a file called @var{output} as the
278 result of linking the file @code{/lib/crt0.o} with @code{hello.o} and
279 the library @code{libc.a}, which will come from the standard search
280 directories. (See the discussion of the @samp{-l} option below.)
282 Some of the command-line options to @command{ld} may be specified at any
283 point in the command line. However, options which refer to files, such
284 as @samp{-l} or @samp{-T}, cause the file to be read at the point at
285 which the option appears in the command line, relative to the object
286 files and other file options. Repeating non-file options with a
287 different argument will either have no further effect, or override prior
288 occurrences (those further to the left on the command line) of that
289 option. Options which may be meaningfully specified more than once are
290 noted in the descriptions below.
293 Non-option arguments are object files or archives which are to be linked
294 together. They may follow, precede, or be mixed in with command-line
295 options, except that an object file argument may not be placed between
296 an option and its argument.
298 Usually the linker is invoked with at least one object file, but you can
299 specify other forms of binary input files using @samp{-l}, @samp{-R},
300 and the script command language. If @emph{no} binary input files at all
301 are specified, the linker does not produce any output, and issues the
302 message @samp{No input files}.
304 If the linker cannot recognize the format of an object file, it will
305 assume that it is a linker script. A script specified in this way
306 augments the main linker script used for the link (either the default
307 linker script or the one specified by using @samp{-T}). This feature
308 permits the linker to link against a file which appears to be an object
309 or an archive, but actually merely defines some symbol values, or uses
310 @code{INPUT} or @code{GROUP} to load other objects. Specifying a
311 script in this way merely augments the main linker script, with the
312 extra commands placed after the main script; use the @samp{-T} option
313 to replace the default linker script entirely, but note the effect of
314 the @code{INSERT} command. @xref{Scripts}.
316 For options whose names are a single letter,
317 option arguments must either follow the option letter without intervening
318 whitespace, or be given as separate arguments immediately following the
319 option that requires them.
321 For options whose names are multiple letters, either one dash or two can
322 precede the option name; for example, @samp{-trace-symbol} and
323 @samp{--trace-symbol} are equivalent. Note---there is one exception to
324 this rule. Multiple letter options that start with a lower case 'o' can
325 only be preceded by two dashes. This is to reduce confusion with the
326 @samp{-o} option. So for example @samp{-omagic} sets the output file
327 name to @samp{magic} whereas @samp{--omagic} sets the NMAGIC flag on the
330 Arguments to multiple-letter options must either be separated from the
331 option name by an equals sign, or be given as separate arguments
332 immediately following the option that requires them. For example,
333 @samp{--trace-symbol foo} and @samp{--trace-symbol=foo} are equivalent.
334 Unique abbreviations of the names of multiple-letter options are
337 Note---if the linker is being invoked indirectly, via a compiler driver
338 (e.g. @samp{gcc}) then all the linker command-line options should be
339 prefixed by @samp{-Wl,} (or whatever is appropriate for the particular
340 compiler driver) like this:
343 gcc -Wl,--start-group foo.o bar.o -Wl,--end-group
346 This is important, because otherwise the compiler driver program may
347 silently drop the linker options, resulting in a bad link. Confusion
348 may also arise when passing options that require values through a
349 driver, as the use of a space between option and argument acts as
350 a separator, and causes the driver to pass only the option to the linker
351 and the argument to the compiler. In this case, it is simplest to use
352 the joined forms of both single- and multiple-letter options, such as:
355 gcc foo.o bar.o -Wl,-eENTRY -Wl,-Map=a.map
358 Here is a table of the generic command-line switches accepted by the GNU
362 @include at-file.texi
364 @kindex -a @var{keyword}
365 @item -a @var{keyword}
366 This option is supported for HP/UX compatibility. The @var{keyword}
367 argument must be one of the strings @samp{archive}, @samp{shared}, or
368 @samp{default}. @samp{-aarchive} is functionally equivalent to
369 @samp{-Bstatic}, and the other two keywords are functionally equivalent
370 to @samp{-Bdynamic}. This option may be used any number of times.
372 @kindex --audit @var{AUDITLIB}
373 @item --audit @var{AUDITLIB}
374 Adds @var{AUDITLIB} to the @code{DT_AUDIT} entry of the dynamic section.
375 @var{AUDITLIB} is not checked for existence, nor will it use the DT_SONAME
376 specified in the library. If specified multiple times @code{DT_AUDIT}
377 will contain a colon separated list of audit interfaces to use. If the linker
378 finds an object with an audit entry while searching for shared libraries,
379 it will add a corresponding @code{DT_DEPAUDIT} entry in the output file.
380 This option is only meaningful on ELF platforms supporting the rtld-audit
383 @ifclear SingleFormat
384 @cindex binary input format
385 @kindex -b @var{format}
386 @kindex --format=@var{format}
389 @item -b @var{input-format}
390 @itemx --format=@var{input-format}
391 @command{ld} may be configured to support more than one kind of object
392 file. If your @command{ld} is configured this way, you can use the
393 @samp{-b} option to specify the binary format for input object files
394 that follow this option on the command line. Even when @command{ld} is
395 configured to support alternative object formats, you don't usually need
396 to specify this, as @command{ld} should be configured to expect as a
397 default input format the most usual format on each machine.
398 @var{input-format} is a text string, the name of a particular format
399 supported by the BFD libraries. (You can list the available binary
400 formats with @samp{objdump -i}.)
403 You may want to use this option if you are linking files with an unusual
404 binary format. You can also use @samp{-b} to switch formats explicitly (when
405 linking object files of different formats), by including
406 @samp{-b @var{input-format}} before each group of object files in a
409 The default format is taken from the environment variable
414 You can also define the input format from a script, using the command
417 see @ref{Format Commands}.
421 @kindex -c @var{MRI-cmdfile}
422 @kindex --mri-script=@var{MRI-cmdfile}
423 @cindex compatibility, MRI
424 @item -c @var{MRI-commandfile}
425 @itemx --mri-script=@var{MRI-commandfile}
426 For compatibility with linkers produced by MRI, @command{ld} accepts script
427 files written in an alternate, restricted command language, described in
429 @ref{MRI,,MRI Compatible Script Files}.
432 the MRI Compatible Script Files section of GNU ld documentation.
434 Introduce MRI script files with
435 the option @samp{-c}; use the @samp{-T} option to run linker
436 scripts written in the general-purpose @command{ld} scripting language.
437 If @var{MRI-cmdfile} does not exist, @command{ld} looks for it in the directories
438 specified by any @samp{-L} options.
440 @cindex common allocation
447 These three options are equivalent; multiple forms are supported for
448 compatibility with other linkers. They assign space to common symbols
449 even if a relocatable output file is specified (with @samp{-r}). The
450 script command @code{FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION} has the same effect.
451 @xref{Miscellaneous Commands}.
453 @kindex --depaudit @var{AUDITLIB}
454 @kindex -P @var{AUDITLIB}
455 @item --depaudit @var{AUDITLIB}
456 @itemx -P @var{AUDITLIB}
457 Adds @var{AUDITLIB} to the @code{DT_DEPAUDIT} entry of the dynamic section.
458 @var{AUDITLIB} is not checked for existence, nor will it use the DT_SONAME
459 specified in the library. If specified multiple times @code{DT_DEPAUDIT}
460 will contain a colon separated list of audit interfaces to use. This
461 option is only meaningful on ELF platforms supporting the rtld-audit interface.
462 The -P option is provided for Solaris compatibility.
464 @kindex --enable-non-contiguous-regions
465 @item --enable-non-contiguous-regions
466 This option avoids generating an error if an input section does not
467 fit a matching output section. The linker tries to allocate the input
468 section to subseque nt matching output sections, and generates an
469 error only if no output section is large enough. This is useful when
470 several non-contiguous memory regions are available and the input
471 section does not require a particular one. The order in which input
472 sections are evaluated does not change, for instance:
476 MEM1 (rwx) : ORIGIN : 0x1000, LENGTH = 0x14
477 MEM2 (rwx) : ORIGIN : 0x1000, LENGTH = 0x40
478 MEM3 (rwx) : ORIGIN : 0x2000, LENGTH = 0x40
481 mem1 : @{ *(.data.*); @} > MEM1
482 mem2 : @{ *(.data.*); @} > MEM2
483 mem3 : @{ *(.data.*); @} > MEM2
491 results in .data.1 affected to mem1, and .data.2 and .data.3
492 affected to mem2, even though .data.3 would fit in mem3.
495 This option is incompatible with INSERT statements because it changes
496 the way input sections are mapped to output sections.
498 @kindex --enable-non-contiguous-regions-warnings
499 @item --enable-non-contiguous-regions-warnings
500 This option enables warnings when
501 @code{--enable-non-contiguous-regions} allows possibly unexpected
502 matches in sections mapping, potentially leading to silently
503 discarding a section instead of failing because it does not fit any
506 @cindex entry point, from command line
507 @kindex -e @var{entry}
508 @kindex --entry=@var{entry}
510 @itemx --entry=@var{entry}
511 Use @var{entry} as the explicit symbol for beginning execution of your
512 program, rather than the default entry point. If there is no symbol
513 named @var{entry}, the linker will try to parse @var{entry} as a number,
514 and use that as the entry address (the number will be interpreted in
515 base 10; you may use a leading @samp{0x} for base 16, or a leading
516 @samp{0} for base 8). @xref{Entry Point}, for a discussion of defaults
517 and other ways of specifying the entry point.
519 @kindex --exclude-libs
520 @item --exclude-libs @var{lib},@var{lib},...
521 Specifies a list of archive libraries from which symbols should not be automatically
522 exported. The library names may be delimited by commas or colons. Specifying
523 @code{--exclude-libs ALL} excludes symbols in all archive libraries from
524 automatic export. This option is available only for the i386 PE targeted
525 port of the linker and for ELF targeted ports. For i386 PE, symbols
526 explicitly listed in a .def file are still exported, regardless of this
527 option. For ELF targeted ports, symbols affected by this option will
528 be treated as hidden.
530 @kindex --exclude-modules-for-implib
531 @item --exclude-modules-for-implib @var{module},@var{module},...
532 Specifies a list of object files or archive members, from which symbols
533 should not be automatically exported, but which should be copied wholesale
534 into the import library being generated during the link. The module names
535 may be delimited by commas or colons, and must match exactly the filenames
536 used by @command{ld} to open the files; for archive members, this is simply
537 the member name, but for object files the name listed must include and
538 match precisely any path used to specify the input file on the linker's
539 command-line. This option is available only for the i386 PE targeted port
540 of the linker. Symbols explicitly listed in a .def file are still exported,
541 regardless of this option.
543 @cindex dynamic symbol table
545 @kindex --export-dynamic
546 @kindex --no-export-dynamic
548 @itemx --export-dynamic
549 @itemx --no-export-dynamic
550 When creating a dynamically linked executable, using the @option{-E}
551 option or the @option{--export-dynamic} option causes the linker to add
552 all symbols to the dynamic symbol table. The dynamic symbol table is the
553 set of symbols which are visible from dynamic objects at run time.
555 If you do not use either of these options (or use the
556 @option{--no-export-dynamic} option to restore the default behavior), the
557 dynamic symbol table will normally contain only those symbols which are
558 referenced by some dynamic object mentioned in the link.
560 If you use @code{dlopen} to load a dynamic object which needs to refer
561 back to the symbols defined by the program, rather than some other
562 dynamic object, then you will probably need to use this option when
563 linking the program itself.
565 You can also use the dynamic list to control what symbols should
566 be added to the dynamic symbol table if the output format supports it.
567 See the description of @samp{--dynamic-list}.
569 Note that this option is specific to ELF targeted ports. PE targets
570 support a similar function to export all symbols from a DLL or EXE; see
571 the description of @samp{--export-all-symbols} below.
573 @kindex --export-dynamic-symbol=@var{glob}
574 @cindex export dynamic symbol
575 @item --export-dynamic-symbol=@var{glob}
576 When creating a dynamically linked executable, symbols matching
577 @var{glob} will be added to the dynamic symbol table. When creating a
578 shared library, references to symbols matching @var{glob} will not be
579 bound to the definitions within the shared library. This option is a
580 no-op when creating a shared library and @samp{-Bsymbolic} or
581 @samp{--dynamic-list} are not specified. This option is only meaningful
582 on ELF platforms which support shared libraries.
584 @kindex --export-dynamic-symbol-list=@var{file}
585 @cindex export dynamic symbol list
586 @item --export-dynamic-symbol-list=@var{file}
587 Specify a @samp{--export-dynamic-symbol} for each pattern in the file.
588 The format of the file is the same as the version node without
589 scope and node name. See @ref{VERSION} for more information.
591 @ifclear SingleFormat
592 @cindex big-endian objects
596 Link big-endian objects. This affects the default output format.
598 @cindex little-endian objects
601 Link little-endian objects. This affects the default output format.
604 @kindex -f @var{name}
605 @kindex --auxiliary=@var{name}
607 @itemx --auxiliary=@var{name}
608 When creating an ELF shared object, set the internal DT_AUXILIARY field
609 to the specified name. This tells the dynamic linker that the symbol
610 table of the shared object should be used as an auxiliary filter on the
611 symbol table of the shared object @var{name}.
613 If you later link a program against this filter object, then, when you
614 run the program, the dynamic linker will see the DT_AUXILIARY field. If
615 the dynamic linker resolves any symbols from the filter object, it will
616 first check whether there is a definition in the shared object
617 @var{name}. If there is one, it will be used instead of the definition
618 in the filter object. The shared object @var{name} need not exist.
619 Thus the shared object @var{name} may be used to provide an alternative
620 implementation of certain functions, perhaps for debugging or for
621 machine-specific performance.
623 This option may be specified more than once. The DT_AUXILIARY entries
624 will be created in the order in which they appear on the command line.
626 @kindex -F @var{name}
627 @kindex --filter=@var{name}
629 @itemx --filter=@var{name}
630 When creating an ELF shared object, set the internal DT_FILTER field to
631 the specified name. This tells the dynamic linker that the symbol table
632 of the shared object which is being created should be used as a filter
633 on the symbol table of the shared object @var{name}.
635 If you later link a program against this filter object, then, when you
636 run the program, the dynamic linker will see the DT_FILTER field. The
637 dynamic linker will resolve symbols according to the symbol table of the
638 filter object as usual, but it will actually link to the definitions
639 found in the shared object @var{name}. Thus the filter object can be
640 used to select a subset of the symbols provided by the object
643 Some older linkers used the @option{-F} option throughout a compilation
644 toolchain for specifying object-file format for both input and output
646 @ifclear SingleFormat
647 The @sc{gnu} linker uses other mechanisms for this purpose: the
648 @option{-b}, @option{--format}, @option{--oformat} options, the
649 @code{TARGET} command in linker scripts, and the @code{GNUTARGET}
650 environment variable.
652 The @sc{gnu} linker will ignore the @option{-F} option when not
653 creating an ELF shared object.
655 @cindex finalization function
656 @kindex -fini=@var{name}
657 @item -fini=@var{name}
658 When creating an ELF executable or shared object, call NAME when the
659 executable or shared object is unloaded, by setting DT_FINI to the
660 address of the function. By default, the linker uses @code{_fini} as
661 the function to call.
665 Ignored. Provided for compatibility with other tools.
667 @kindex -G @var{value}
668 @kindex --gpsize=@var{value}
671 @itemx --gpsize=@var{value}
672 Set the maximum size of objects to be optimized using the GP register to
673 @var{size}. This is only meaningful for object file formats such as
674 MIPS ELF that support putting large and small objects into different
675 sections. This is ignored for other object file formats.
677 @cindex runtime library name
678 @kindex -h @var{name}
679 @kindex -soname=@var{name}
681 @itemx -soname=@var{name}
682 When creating an ELF shared object, set the internal DT_SONAME field to
683 the specified name. When an executable is linked with a shared object
684 which has a DT_SONAME field, then when the executable is run the dynamic
685 linker will attempt to load the shared object specified by the DT_SONAME
686 field rather than the using the file name given to the linker.
689 @cindex incremental link
691 Perform an incremental link (same as option @samp{-r}).
693 @cindex initialization function
694 @kindex -init=@var{name}
695 @item -init=@var{name}
696 When creating an ELF executable or shared object, call NAME when the
697 executable or shared object is loaded, by setting DT_INIT to the address
698 of the function. By default, the linker uses @code{_init} as the
701 @cindex archive files, from cmd line
702 @kindex -l @var{namespec}
703 @kindex --library=@var{namespec}
704 @item -l @var{namespec}
705 @itemx --library=@var{namespec}
706 Add the archive or object file specified by @var{namespec} to the
707 list of files to link. This option may be used any number of times.
708 If @var{namespec} is of the form @file{:@var{filename}}, @command{ld}
709 will search the library path for a file called @var{filename}, otherwise it
710 will search the library path for a file called @file{lib@var{namespec}.a}.
712 On systems which support shared libraries, @command{ld} may also search for
713 files other than @file{lib@var{namespec}.a}. Specifically, on ELF
714 and SunOS systems, @command{ld} will search a directory for a library
715 called @file{lib@var{namespec}.so} before searching for one called
716 @file{lib@var{namespec}.a}. (By convention, a @code{.so} extension
717 indicates a shared library.) Note that this behavior does not apply
718 to @file{:@var{filename}}, which always specifies a file called
721 The linker will search an archive only once, at the location where it is
722 specified on the command line. If the archive defines a symbol which
723 was undefined in some object which appeared before the archive on the
724 command line, the linker will include the appropriate file(s) from the
725 archive. However, an undefined symbol in an object appearing later on
726 the command line will not cause the linker to search the archive again.
728 See the @option{-(} option for a way to force the linker to search
729 archives multiple times.
731 You may list the same archive multiple times on the command line.
734 This type of archive searching is standard for Unix linkers. However,
735 if you are using @command{ld} on AIX, note that it is different from the
736 behaviour of the AIX linker.
739 @cindex search directory, from cmd line
741 @kindex --library-path=@var{dir}
742 @item -L @var{searchdir}
743 @itemx --library-path=@var{searchdir}
744 Add path @var{searchdir} to the list of paths that @command{ld} will search
745 for archive libraries and @command{ld} control scripts. You may use this
746 option any number of times. The directories are searched in the order
747 in which they are specified on the command line. Directories specified
748 on the command line are searched before the default directories. All
749 @option{-L} options apply to all @option{-l} options, regardless of the
750 order in which the options appear. @option{-L} options do not affect
751 how @command{ld} searches for a linker script unless @option{-T}
754 If @var{searchdir} begins with @code{=} or @code{$SYSROOT}, then this
755 prefix will be replaced by the @dfn{sysroot prefix}, controlled by the
756 @samp{--sysroot} option, or specified when the linker is configured.
759 The default set of paths searched (without being specified with
760 @samp{-L}) depends on which emulation mode @command{ld} is using, and in
761 some cases also on how it was configured. @xref{Environment}.
764 The paths can also be specified in a link script with the
765 @code{SEARCH_DIR} command. Directories specified this way are searched
766 at the point in which the linker script appears in the command line.
769 @kindex -m @var{emulation}
770 @item -m @var{emulation}
771 Emulate the @var{emulation} linker. You can list the available
772 emulations with the @samp{--verbose} or @samp{-V} options.
774 If the @samp{-m} option is not used, the emulation is taken from the
775 @code{LDEMULATION} environment variable, if that is defined.
777 Otherwise, the default emulation depends upon how the linker was
785 Print a link map to the standard output. A link map provides
786 information about the link, including the following:
790 Where object files are mapped into memory.
792 How common symbols are allocated.
794 All archive members included in the link, with a mention of the symbol
795 which caused the archive member to be brought in.
797 The values assigned to symbols.
799 Note - symbols whose values are computed by an expression which
800 involves a reference to a previous value of the same symbol may not
801 have correct result displayed in the link map. This is because the
802 linker discards intermediate results and only retains the final value
803 of an expression. Under such circumstances the linker will display
804 the final value enclosed by square brackets. Thus for example a
805 linker script containing:
813 will produce the following output in the link map if the @option{-M}
818 [0x0000000c] foo = (foo * 0x4)
819 [0x0000000c] foo = (foo + 0x8)
822 See @ref{Expressions} for more information about expressions in linker
826 How GNU properties are merged.
828 When the linker merges input .note.gnu.property sections into one output
829 .note.gnu.property section, some properties are removed or updated.
830 These actions are reported in the link map. For example:
833 Removed property 0xc0000002 to merge foo.o (0x1) and bar.o (not found)
836 This indicates that property 0xc0000002 is removed from output when
837 merging properties in @file{foo.o}, whose property 0xc0000002 value
838 is 0x1, and @file{bar.o}, which doesn't have property 0xc0000002.
841 Updated property 0xc0010001 (0x1) to merge foo.o (0x1) and bar.o (0x1)
844 This indicates that property 0xc0010001 value is updated to 0x1 in output
845 when merging properties in @file{foo.o}, whose 0xc0010001 property value
846 is 0x1, and @file{bar.o}, whose 0xc0010001 property value is 0x1.
849 @cindex link map discarded
850 @kindex --print-map-discarded
851 @kindex --no-print-map-discarded
852 @item --print-map-discarded
853 @itemx --no-print-map-discarded
854 Print (or do not print) the list of discarded and garbage collected sections
855 in the link map. Enabled by default.
858 @cindex read-only text
863 Turn off page alignment of sections, and disable linking against shared
864 libraries. If the output format supports Unix style magic numbers,
865 mark the output as @code{NMAGIC}.
869 @cindex read/write from cmd line
873 Set the text and data sections to be readable and writable. Also, do
874 not page-align the data segment, and disable linking against shared
875 libraries. If the output format supports Unix style magic numbers,
876 mark the output as @code{OMAGIC}. Note: Although a writable text section
877 is allowed for PE-COFF targets, it does not conform to the format
878 specification published by Microsoft.
883 This option negates most of the effects of the @option{-N} option. It
884 sets the text section to be read-only, and forces the data segment to
885 be page-aligned. Note - this option does not enable linking against
886 shared libraries. Use @option{-Bdynamic} for this.
888 @kindex -o @var{output}
889 @kindex --output=@var{output}
890 @cindex naming the output file
891 @item -o @var{output}
892 @itemx --output=@var{output}
893 Use @var{output} as the name for the program produced by @command{ld}; if this
894 option is not specified, the name @file{a.out} is used by default. The
895 script command @code{OUTPUT} can also specify the output file name.
897 @kindex --dependency-file=@var{depfile}
898 @cindex dependency file
899 @item --dependency-file=@var{depfile}
900 Write a @dfn{dependency file} to @var{depfile}. This file contains a rule
901 suitable for @code{make} describing the output file and all the input files
902 that were read to produce it. The output is similar to the compiler's
903 output with @samp{-M -MP} (@pxref{Preprocessor Options,, Options
904 Controlling the Preprocessor, gcc.info, Using the GNU Compiler
905 Collection}). Note that there is no option like the compiler's @samp{-MM},
906 to exclude ``system files'' (which is not a well-specified concept in the
907 linker, unlike ``system headers'' in the compiler). So the output from
908 @samp{--dependency-file} is always specific to the exact state of the
909 installation where it was produced, and should not be copied into
910 distributed makefiles without careful editing.
912 @kindex -O @var{level}
913 @cindex generating optimized output
915 If @var{level} is a numeric values greater than zero @command{ld} optimizes
916 the output. This might take significantly longer and therefore probably
917 should only be enabled for the final binary. At the moment this
918 option only affects ELF shared library generation. Future releases of
919 the linker may make more use of this option. Also currently there is
920 no difference in the linker's behaviour for different non-zero values
921 of this option. Again this may change with future releases.
923 @kindex -plugin @var{name}
924 @item -plugin @var{name}
925 Involve a plugin in the linking process. The @var{name} parameter is
926 the absolute filename of the plugin. Usually this parameter is
927 automatically added by the complier, when using link time
928 optimization, but users can also add their own plugins if they so
931 Note that the location of the compiler originated plugins is different
932 from the place where the @command{ar}, @command{nm} and
933 @command{ranlib} programs search for their plugins. In order for
934 those commands to make use of a compiler based plugin it must first be
935 copied into the @file{$@{libdir@}/bfd-plugins} directory. All gcc
936 based linker plugins are backward compatible, so it is sufficient to
937 just copy in the newest one.
940 @cindex push state governing input file handling
942 The @option{--push-state} allows one to preserve the current state of the
943 flags which govern the input file handling so that they can all be
944 restored with one corresponding @option{--pop-state} option.
946 The option which are covered are: @option{-Bdynamic}, @option{-Bstatic},
947 @option{-dn}, @option{-dy}, @option{-call_shared}, @option{-non_shared},
948 @option{-static}, @option{-N}, @option{-n}, @option{--whole-archive},
949 @option{--no-whole-archive}, @option{-r}, @option{-Ur},
950 @option{--copy-dt-needed-entries}, @option{--no-copy-dt-needed-entries},
951 @option{--as-needed}, @option{--no-as-needed}, and @option{-a}.
953 One target for this option are specifications for @file{pkg-config}. When
954 used with the @option{--libs} option all possibly needed libraries are
955 listed and then possibly linked with all the time. It is better to return
956 something as follows:
959 -Wl,--push-state,--as-needed -libone -libtwo -Wl,--pop-state
963 @cindex pop state governing input file handling
965 Undoes the effect of --push-state, restores the previous values of the
966 flags governing input file handling.
969 @kindex --emit-relocs
970 @cindex retain relocations in final executable
973 Leave relocation sections and contents in fully linked executables.
974 Post link analysis and optimization tools may need this information in
975 order to perform correct modifications of executables. This results
976 in larger executables.
978 This option is currently only supported on ELF platforms.
980 @kindex --force-dynamic
981 @cindex forcing the creation of dynamic sections
982 @item --force-dynamic
983 Force the output file to have dynamic sections. This option is specific
987 @cindex relocatable output
989 @kindex --relocatable
992 Generate relocatable output---i.e., generate an output file that can in
993 turn serve as input to @command{ld}. This is often called @dfn{partial
994 linking}. As a side effect, in environments that support standard Unix
995 magic numbers, this option also sets the output file's magic number to
997 @c ; see @option{-N}.
998 If this option is not specified, an absolute file is produced. When
999 linking C++ programs, this option @emph{will not} resolve references to
1000 constructors; to do that, use @samp{-Ur}.
1002 When an input file does not have the same format as the output file,
1003 partial linking is only supported if that input file does not contain any
1004 relocations. Different output formats can have further restrictions; for
1005 example some @code{a.out}-based formats do not support partial linking
1006 with input files in other formats at all.
1008 This option does the same thing as @samp{-i}.
1010 @kindex -R @var{file}
1011 @kindex --just-symbols=@var{file}
1012 @cindex symbol-only input
1013 @item -R @var{filename}
1014 @itemx --just-symbols=@var{filename}
1015 Read symbol names and their addresses from @var{filename}, but do not
1016 relocate it or include it in the output. This allows your output file
1017 to refer symbolically to absolute locations of memory defined in other
1018 programs. You may use this option more than once.
1020 For compatibility with other ELF linkers, if the @option{-R} option is
1021 followed by a directory name, rather than a file name, it is treated as
1022 the @option{-rpath} option.
1026 @cindex strip all symbols
1029 Omit all symbol information from the output file.
1032 @kindex --strip-debug
1033 @cindex strip debugger symbols
1035 @itemx --strip-debug
1036 Omit debugger symbol information (but not all symbols) from the output file.
1038 @kindex --strip-discarded
1039 @kindex --no-strip-discarded
1040 @item --strip-discarded
1041 @itemx --no-strip-discarded
1042 Omit (or do not omit) global symbols defined in discarded sections.
1047 @cindex input files, displaying
1050 Print the names of the input files as @command{ld} processes them. If
1051 @samp{-t} is given twice then members within archives are also printed.
1052 @samp{-t} output is useful to generate a list of all the object files
1053 and scripts involved in linking, for example, when packaging files for
1054 a linker bug report.
1056 @kindex -T @var{script}
1057 @kindex --script=@var{script}
1058 @cindex script files
1059 @item -T @var{scriptfile}
1060 @itemx --script=@var{scriptfile}
1061 Use @var{scriptfile} as the linker script. This script replaces
1062 @command{ld}'s default linker script (rather than adding to it), so
1063 @var{commandfile} must specify everything necessary to describe the
1064 output file. @xref{Scripts}. If @var{scriptfile} does not exist in
1065 the current directory, @code{ld} looks for it in the directories
1066 specified by any preceding @samp{-L} options. Multiple @samp{-T}
1069 @kindex -dT @var{script}
1070 @kindex --default-script=@var{script}
1071 @cindex script files
1072 @item -dT @var{scriptfile}
1073 @itemx --default-script=@var{scriptfile}
1074 Use @var{scriptfile} as the default linker script. @xref{Scripts}.
1076 This option is similar to the @option{--script} option except that
1077 processing of the script is delayed until after the rest of the
1078 command line has been processed. This allows options placed after the
1079 @option{--default-script} option on the command line to affect the
1080 behaviour of the linker script, which can be important when the linker
1081 command line cannot be directly controlled by the user. (eg because
1082 the command line is being constructed by another tool, such as
1085 @kindex -u @var{symbol}
1086 @kindex --undefined=@var{symbol}
1087 @cindex undefined symbol
1088 @item -u @var{symbol}
1089 @itemx --undefined=@var{symbol}
1090 Force @var{symbol} to be entered in the output file as an undefined
1091 symbol. Doing this may, for example, trigger linking of additional
1092 modules from standard libraries. @samp{-u} may be repeated with
1093 different option arguments to enter additional undefined symbols. This
1094 option is equivalent to the @code{EXTERN} linker script command.
1096 If this option is being used to force additional modules to be pulled
1097 into the link, and if it is an error for the symbol to remain
1098 undefined, then the option @option{--require-defined} should be used
1101 @kindex --require-defined=@var{symbol}
1102 @cindex symbols, require defined
1103 @cindex defined symbol
1104 @item --require-defined=@var{symbol}
1105 Require that @var{symbol} is defined in the output file. This option
1106 is the same as option @option{--undefined} except that if @var{symbol}
1107 is not defined in the output file then the linker will issue an error
1108 and exit. The same effect can be achieved in a linker script by using
1109 @code{EXTERN}, @code{ASSERT} and @code{DEFINED} together. This option
1110 can be used multiple times to require additional symbols.
1113 @cindex constructors
1115 For anything other than C++ programs, this option is equivalent to
1116 @samp{-r}: it generates relocatable output---i.e., an output file that can in
1117 turn serve as input to @command{ld}. When linking C++ programs, @samp{-Ur}
1118 @emph{does} resolve references to constructors, unlike @samp{-r}.
1119 It does not work to use @samp{-Ur} on files that were themselves linked
1120 with @samp{-Ur}; once the constructor table has been built, it cannot
1121 be added to. Use @samp{-Ur} only for the last partial link, and
1122 @samp{-r} for the others.
1124 @kindex --orphan-handling=@var{MODE}
1125 @cindex orphan sections
1126 @cindex sections, orphan
1127 @item --orphan-handling=@var{MODE}
1128 Control how orphan sections are handled. An orphan section is one not
1129 specifically mentioned in a linker script. @xref{Orphan Sections}.
1131 @var{MODE} can have any of the following values:
1135 Orphan sections are placed into a suitable output section following
1136 the strategy described in @ref{Orphan Sections}. The option
1137 @samp{--unique} also affects how sections are placed.
1140 All orphan sections are discarded, by placing them in the
1141 @samp{/DISCARD/} section (@pxref{Output Section Discarding}).
1144 The linker will place the orphan section as for @code{place} and also
1148 The linker will exit with an error if any orphan section is found.
1151 The default if @samp{--orphan-handling} is not given is @code{place}.
1153 @kindex --unique[=@var{SECTION}]
1154 @item --unique[=@var{SECTION}]
1155 Creates a separate output section for every input section matching
1156 @var{SECTION}, or if the optional wildcard @var{SECTION} argument is
1157 missing, for every orphan input section. An orphan section is one not
1158 specifically mentioned in a linker script. You may use this option
1159 multiple times on the command line; It prevents the normal merging of
1160 input sections with the same name, overriding output section assignments
1170 Display the version number for @command{ld}. The @option{-V} option also
1171 lists the supported emulations.
1174 @kindex --discard-all
1175 @cindex deleting local symbols
1177 @itemx --discard-all
1178 Delete all local symbols.
1181 @kindex --discard-locals
1182 @cindex local symbols, deleting
1184 @itemx --discard-locals
1185 Delete all temporary local symbols. (These symbols start with
1186 system-specific local label prefixes, typically @samp{.L} for ELF systems
1187 or @samp{L} for traditional a.out systems.)
1189 @kindex -y @var{symbol}
1190 @kindex --trace-symbol=@var{symbol}
1191 @cindex symbol tracing
1192 @item -y @var{symbol}
1193 @itemx --trace-symbol=@var{symbol}
1194 Print the name of each linked file in which @var{symbol} appears. This
1195 option may be given any number of times. On many systems it is necessary
1196 to prepend an underscore.
1198 This option is useful when you have an undefined symbol in your link but
1199 don't know where the reference is coming from.
1201 @kindex -Y @var{path}
1203 Add @var{path} to the default library search path. This option exists
1204 for Solaris compatibility.
1206 @kindex -z @var{keyword}
1207 @item -z @var{keyword}
1208 The recognized keywords are:
1212 Always generate BND prefix in PLT entries. Supported for Linux/x86_64.
1214 @item call-nop=prefix-addr
1215 @itemx call-nop=suffix-nop
1216 @itemx call-nop=prefix-@var{byte}
1217 @itemx call-nop=suffix-@var{byte}
1218 Specify the 1-byte @code{NOP} padding when transforming indirect call
1219 to a locally defined function, foo, via its GOT slot.
1220 @option{call-nop=prefix-addr} generates @code{0x67 call foo}.
1221 @option{call-nop=suffix-nop} generates @code{call foo 0x90}.
1222 @option{call-nop=prefix-@var{byte}} generates @code{@var{byte} call foo}.
1223 @option{call-nop=suffix-@var{byte}} generates @code{call foo @var{byte}}.
1224 Supported for i386 and x86_64.
1226 @item cet-report=none
1227 @itemx cet-report=warning
1228 @itemx cet-report=error
1229 Specify how to report the missing GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_IBT and
1230 GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_SHSTK properties in input .note.gnu.property
1231 section. @option{cet-report=none}, which is the default, will make the
1232 linker not report missing properties in input files.
1233 @option{cet-report=warning} will make the linker issue a warning for
1234 missing properties in input files. @option{cet-report=error} will make
1235 the linker issue an error for missing properties in input files.
1236 Note that @option{ibt} will turn off the missing
1237 GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_IBT property report and @option{shstk} will
1238 turn off the missing GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_SHSTK property report.
1239 Supported for Linux/i386 and Linux/x86_64.
1243 Combine multiple dynamic relocation sections and sort to improve
1244 dynamic symbol lookup caching. Do not do this if @samp{nocombreloc}.
1248 Generate common symbols with STT_COMMON type during a relocatable
1249 link. Use STT_OBJECT type if @samp{nocommon}.
1251 @item common-page-size=@var{value}
1252 Set the page size most commonly used to @var{value}. Memory image
1253 layout will be optimized to minimize memory pages if the system is
1254 using pages of this size.
1257 Report unresolved symbol references from regular object files. This
1258 is done even if the linker is creating a non-symbolic shared library.
1259 This option is the inverse of @samp{-z undefs}.
1261 @item dynamic-undefined-weak
1262 @itemx nodynamic-undefined-weak
1263 Make undefined weak symbols dynamic when building a dynamic object,
1264 if they are referenced from a regular object file and not forced local
1265 by symbol visibility or versioning. Do not make them dynamic if
1266 @samp{nodynamic-undefined-weak}. If neither option is given, a target
1267 may default to either option being in force, or make some other
1268 selection of undefined weak symbols dynamic. Not all targets support
1272 Marks the object as requiring executable stack.
1275 This option is only meaningful when building a shared object. It makes
1276 the symbols defined by this shared object available for symbol resolution
1277 of subsequently loaded libraries.
1280 This option is only meaningful when building a dynamic executable.
1281 This option marks the executable as requiring global auditing by
1282 setting the @code{DF_1_GLOBAUDIT} bit in the @code{DT_FLAGS_1} dynamic
1283 tag. Global auditing requires that any auditing library defined via
1284 the @option{--depaudit} or @option{-P} command-line options be run for
1285 all dynamic objects loaded by the application.
1288 Generate Intel Indirect Branch Tracking (IBT) enabled PLT entries.
1289 Supported for Linux/i386 and Linux/x86_64.
1292 Generate GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_IBT in .note.gnu.property section
1293 to indicate compatibility with IBT. This also implies @option{ibtplt}.
1294 Supported for Linux/i386 and Linux/x86_64.
1297 This option is only meaningful when building a shared object.
1298 It marks the object so that its runtime initialization will occur
1299 before the runtime initialization of any other objects brought into
1300 the process at the same time. Similarly the runtime finalization of
1301 the object will occur after the runtime finalization of any other
1305 Specify that the dynamic loader should modify its symbol search order
1306 so that symbols in this shared library interpose all other shared
1307 libraries not so marked.
1311 When generating a shared library or other dynamically loadable ELF
1312 object mark it as one that should (by default) only ever be loaded once,
1313 and only in the main namespace (when using @code{dlmopen}). This is
1314 primarily used to mark fundamental libraries such as libc, libpthread et
1315 al which do not usually function correctly unless they are the sole instances
1316 of themselves. This behaviour can be overridden by the @code{dlmopen} caller
1317 and does not apply to certain loading mechanisms (such as audit libraries).
1320 Generate GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_LAM_U48 in .note.gnu.property section
1321 to indicate compatibility with Intel LAM_U48. Supported for Linux/x86_64.
1324 Generate GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_LAM_U57 in .note.gnu.property section
1325 to indicate compatibility with Intel LAM_U57. Supported for Linux/x86_64.
1327 @item lam-u48-report=none
1328 @itemx lam-u48-report=warning
1329 @itemx lam-u48-report=error
1330 Specify how to report the missing GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_LAM_U48
1331 property in input .note.gnu.property section.
1332 @option{lam-u48-report=none}, which is the default, will make the
1333 linker not report missing properties in input files.
1334 @option{lam-u48-report=warning} will make the linker issue a warning for
1335 missing properties in input files. @option{lam-u48-report=error} will
1336 make the linker issue an error for missing properties in input files.
1337 Supported for Linux/x86_64.
1339 @item lam-u57-report=none
1340 @itemx lam-u57-report=warning
1341 @itemx lam-u57-report=error
1342 Specify how to report the missing GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_LAM_U57
1343 property in input .note.gnu.property section.
1344 @option{lam-u57-report=none}, which is the default, will make the
1345 linker not report missing properties in input files.
1346 @option{lam-u57-report=warning} will make the linker issue a warning for
1347 missing properties in input files. @option{lam-u57-report=error} will
1348 make the linker issue an error for missing properties in input files.
1349 Supported for Linux/x86_64.
1351 @item lam-report=none
1352 @itemx lam-report=warning
1353 @itemx lam-report=error
1354 Specify how to report the missing GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_LAM_U48 and
1355 GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_LAM_U57 properties in input .note.gnu.property
1356 section. @option{lam-report=none}, which is the default, will make the
1357 linker not report missing properties in input files.
1358 @option{lam-report=warning} will make the linker issue a warning for
1359 missing properties in input files. @option{lam-report=error} will make
1360 the linker issue an error for missing properties in input files.
1361 Supported for Linux/x86_64.
1364 When generating an executable or shared library, mark it to tell the
1365 dynamic linker to defer function call resolution to the point when
1366 the function is called (lazy binding), rather than at load time.
1367 Lazy binding is the default.
1370 Specify that the object's filters be processed immediately at runtime.
1372 @item max-page-size=@var{value}
1373 Set the maximum memory page size supported to @var{value}.
1376 Allow multiple definitions.
1379 Disable linker generated .dynbss variables used in place of variables
1380 defined in shared libraries. May result in dynamic text relocations.
1383 Specify that the dynamic loader search for dependencies of this object
1384 should ignore any default library search paths.
1387 Specify that the object shouldn't be unloaded at runtime.
1390 Specify that the object is not available to @code{dlopen}.
1393 Specify that the object can not be dumped by @code{dldump}.
1396 Marks the object as not requiring executable stack.
1398 @item noextern-protected-data
1399 Don't treat protected data symbols as external when building a shared
1400 library. This option overrides the linker backend default. It can be
1401 used to work around incorrect relocations against protected data symbols
1402 generated by compiler. Updates on protected data symbols by another
1403 module aren't visible to the resulting shared library. Supported for
1406 @item noreloc-overflow
1407 Disable relocation overflow check. This can be used to disable
1408 relocation overflow check if there will be no dynamic relocation
1409 overflow at run-time. Supported for x86_64.
1412 When generating an executable or shared library, mark it to tell the
1413 dynamic linker to resolve all symbols when the program is started, or
1414 when the shared library is loaded by dlopen, instead of deferring
1415 function call resolution to the point when the function is first
1419 Specify that the object requires @samp{$ORIGIN} handling in paths.
1423 Create an ELF @code{PT_GNU_RELRO} segment header in the object. This
1424 specifies a memory segment that should be made read-only after
1425 relocation, if supported. Specifying @samp{common-page-size} smaller
1426 than the system page size will render this protection ineffective.
1427 Don't create an ELF @code{PT_GNU_RELRO} segment if @samp{norelro}.
1429 @item report-relative-reloc
1430 Report dynamic relative relocations generated by linker. Supported for
1431 Linux/i386 and Linux/x86_64.
1434 @itemx noseparate-code
1435 Create separate code @code{PT_LOAD} segment header in the object. This
1436 specifies a memory segment that should contain only instructions and must
1437 be in wholly disjoint pages from any other data. Don't create separate
1438 code @code{PT_LOAD} segment if @samp{noseparate-code} is used.
1441 @itemx nounique-symbol
1442 Avoid duplicated local symbol names in the symbol string table. Append
1443 ".@code{number}" to duplicated local symbol names if @samp{unique-symbol}
1444 is used. @option{nounique-symbol} is the default.
1447 Generate GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_SHSTK in .note.gnu.property section
1448 to indicate compatibility with Intel Shadow Stack. Supported for
1449 Linux/i386 and Linux/x86_64.
1451 @item stack-size=@var{value}
1452 Specify a stack size for an ELF @code{PT_GNU_STACK} segment.
1453 Specifying zero will override any default non-zero sized
1454 @code{PT_GNU_STACK} segment creation.
1457 @itemx nostart-stop-gc
1458 @cindex start-stop-gc
1459 When @samp{--gc-sections} is in effect, a reference from a retained
1460 section to @code{__start_SECNAME} or @code{__stop_SECNAME} causes all
1461 input sections named @code{SECNAME} to also be retained, if
1462 @code{SECNAME} is representable as a C identifier and either
1463 @code{__start_SECNAME} or @code{__stop_SECNAME} is synthesized by the
1464 linker. @samp{-z start-stop-gc} disables this effect, allowing
1465 sections to be garbage collected as if the special synthesized symbols
1466 were not defined. @samp{-z start-stop-gc} has no effect on a
1467 definition of @code{__start_SECNAME} or @code{__stop_SECNAME} in an
1468 object file or linker script. Such a definition will prevent the
1469 linker providing a synthesized @code{__start_SECNAME} or
1470 @code{__stop_SECNAME} respectively, and therefore the special
1471 treatment by garbage collection for those references.
1473 @item start-stop-visibility=@var{value}
1475 @cindex ELF symbol visibility
1476 Specify the ELF symbol visibility for synthesized
1477 @code{__start_SECNAME} and @code{__stop_SECNAME} symbols (@pxref{Input
1478 Section Example}). @var{value} must be exactly @samp{default},
1479 @samp{internal}, @samp{hidden}, or @samp{protected}. If no @samp{-z
1480 start-stop-visibility} option is given, @samp{protected} is used for
1481 compatibility with historical practice. However, it's highly
1482 recommended to use @samp{-z start-stop-visibility=hidden} in new
1483 programs and shared libraries so that these symbols are not exported
1484 between shared objects, which is not usually what's intended.
1489 Report an error if DT_TEXTREL is set, i.e., if the position-independent
1490 or shared object has dynamic relocations in read-only sections. Don't
1491 report an error if @samp{notext} or @samp{textoff}.
1494 Do not report unresolved symbol references from regular object files,
1495 either when creating an executable, or when creating a shared library.
1496 This option is the inverse of @samp{-z defs}.
1498 @item x86-64-baseline
1502 Specify the x86-64 ISA level needed in .note.gnu.property section.
1503 @option{x86-64-baseline} generates @code{GNU_PROPERTY_X86_ISA_1_BASELINE}.
1504 @option{x86-64-v2} generates @code{GNU_PROPERTY_X86_ISA_1_V2}.
1505 @option{x86-64-v3} generates @code{GNU_PROPERTY_X86_ISA_1_V3}.
1506 @option{x86-64-v4} generates @code{GNU_PROPERTY_X86_ISA_1_V4}.
1507 Supported for Linux/i386 and Linux/x86_64.
1511 Other keywords are ignored for Solaris compatibility.
1514 @cindex groups of archives
1515 @item -( @var{archives} -)
1516 @itemx --start-group @var{archives} --end-group
1517 The @var{archives} should be a list of archive files. They may be
1518 either explicit file names, or @samp{-l} options.
1520 The specified archives are searched repeatedly until no new undefined
1521 references are created. Normally, an archive is searched only once in
1522 the order that it is specified on the command line. If a symbol in that
1523 archive is needed to resolve an undefined symbol referred to by an
1524 object in an archive that appears later on the command line, the linker
1525 would not be able to resolve that reference. By grouping the archives,
1526 they will all be searched repeatedly until all possible references are
1529 Using this option has a significant performance cost. It is best to use
1530 it only when there are unavoidable circular references between two or
1533 @kindex --accept-unknown-input-arch
1534 @kindex --no-accept-unknown-input-arch
1535 @item --accept-unknown-input-arch
1536 @itemx --no-accept-unknown-input-arch
1537 Tells the linker to accept input files whose architecture cannot be
1538 recognised. The assumption is that the user knows what they are doing
1539 and deliberately wants to link in these unknown input files. This was
1540 the default behaviour of the linker, before release 2.14. The default
1541 behaviour from release 2.14 onwards is to reject such input files, and
1542 so the @samp{--accept-unknown-input-arch} option has been added to
1543 restore the old behaviour.
1546 @kindex --no-as-needed
1548 @itemx --no-as-needed
1549 This option affects ELF DT_NEEDED tags for dynamic libraries mentioned
1550 on the command line after the @option{--as-needed} option. Normally
1551 the linker will add a DT_NEEDED tag for each dynamic library mentioned
1552 on the command line, regardless of whether the library is actually
1553 needed or not. @option{--as-needed} causes a DT_NEEDED tag to only be
1554 emitted for a library that @emph{at that point in the link} satisfies a
1555 non-weak undefined symbol reference from a regular object file or, if
1556 the library is not found in the DT_NEEDED lists of other needed libraries, a
1557 non-weak undefined symbol reference from another needed dynamic library.
1558 Object files or libraries appearing on the command line @emph{after}
1559 the library in question do not affect whether the library is seen as
1560 needed. This is similar to the rules for extraction of object files
1561 from archives. @option{--no-as-needed} restores the default behaviour.
1563 Note: On Linux based systems the @option{--as-needed} option also has
1564 an affect on the behaviour of the @option{--rpath} and
1565 @option{--rpath-link} options. See the description of
1566 @option{--rpath-link} for more details.
1568 @kindex --add-needed
1569 @kindex --no-add-needed
1571 @itemx --no-add-needed
1572 These two options have been deprecated because of the similarity of
1573 their names to the @option{--as-needed} and @option{--no-as-needed}
1574 options. They have been replaced by @option{--copy-dt-needed-entries}
1575 and @option{--no-copy-dt-needed-entries}.
1577 @kindex -assert @var{keyword}
1578 @item -assert @var{keyword}
1579 This option is ignored for SunOS compatibility.
1583 @kindex -call_shared
1587 Link against dynamic libraries. This is only meaningful on platforms
1588 for which shared libraries are supported. This option is normally the
1589 default on such platforms. The different variants of this option are
1590 for compatibility with various systems. You may use this option
1591 multiple times on the command line: it affects library searching for
1592 @option{-l} options which follow it.
1596 Set the @code{DF_1_GROUP} flag in the @code{DT_FLAGS_1} entry in the dynamic
1597 section. This causes the runtime linker to handle lookups in this
1598 object and its dependencies to be performed only inside the group.
1599 @option{--unresolved-symbols=report-all} is implied. This option is
1600 only meaningful on ELF platforms which support shared libraries.
1610 Do not link against shared libraries. This is only meaningful on
1611 platforms for which shared libraries are supported. The different
1612 variants of this option are for compatibility with various systems. You
1613 may use this option multiple times on the command line: it affects
1614 library searching for @option{-l} options which follow it. This
1615 option also implies @option{--unresolved-symbols=report-all}. This
1616 option can be used with @option{-shared}. Doing so means that a
1617 shared library is being created but that all of the library's external
1618 references must be resolved by pulling in entries from static
1623 When creating a shared library, bind references to global symbols to the
1624 definition within the shared library, if any. Normally, it is possible
1625 for a program linked against a shared library to override the definition
1626 within the shared library. This option is only meaningful on ELF
1627 platforms which support shared libraries.
1629 @kindex -Bsymbolic-functions
1630 @item -Bsymbolic-functions
1631 When creating a shared library, bind references to global function
1632 symbols to the definition within the shared library, if any.
1633 This option is only meaningful on ELF platforms which support shared
1636 @kindex -Bno-symbolic
1638 This option can cancel previously specified @samp{-Bsymbolic} and
1639 @samp{-Bsymbolic-functions}.
1641 @kindex --dynamic-list=@var{dynamic-list-file}
1642 @item --dynamic-list=@var{dynamic-list-file}
1643 Specify the name of a dynamic list file to the linker. This is
1644 typically used when creating shared libraries to specify a list of
1645 global symbols whose references shouldn't be bound to the definition
1646 within the shared library, or creating dynamically linked executables
1647 to specify a list of symbols which should be added to the symbol table
1648 in the executable. This option is only meaningful on ELF platforms
1649 which support shared libraries.
1651 The format of the dynamic list is the same as the version node without
1652 scope and node name. See @ref{VERSION} for more information.
1654 @kindex --dynamic-list-data
1655 @item --dynamic-list-data
1656 Include all global data symbols to the dynamic list.
1658 @kindex --dynamic-list-cpp-new
1659 @item --dynamic-list-cpp-new
1660 Provide the builtin dynamic list for C++ operator new and delete. It
1661 is mainly useful for building shared libstdc++.
1663 @kindex --dynamic-list-cpp-typeinfo
1664 @item --dynamic-list-cpp-typeinfo
1665 Provide the builtin dynamic list for C++ runtime type identification.
1667 @kindex --check-sections
1668 @kindex --no-check-sections
1669 @item --check-sections
1670 @itemx --no-check-sections
1671 Asks the linker @emph{not} to check section addresses after they have
1672 been assigned to see if there are any overlaps. Normally the linker will
1673 perform this check, and if it finds any overlaps it will produce
1674 suitable error messages. The linker does know about, and does make
1675 allowances for sections in overlays. The default behaviour can be
1676 restored by using the command-line switch @option{--check-sections}.
1677 Section overlap is not usually checked for relocatable links. You can
1678 force checking in that case by using the @option{--check-sections}
1681 @kindex --copy-dt-needed-entries
1682 @kindex --no-copy-dt-needed-entries
1683 @item --copy-dt-needed-entries
1684 @itemx --no-copy-dt-needed-entries
1685 This option affects the treatment of dynamic libraries referred to
1686 by DT_NEEDED tags @emph{inside} ELF dynamic libraries mentioned on the
1687 command line. Normally the linker won't add a DT_NEEDED tag to the
1688 output binary for each library mentioned in a DT_NEEDED tag in an
1689 input dynamic library. With @option{--copy-dt-needed-entries}
1690 specified on the command line however any dynamic libraries that
1691 follow it will have their DT_NEEDED entries added. The default
1692 behaviour can be restored with @option{--no-copy-dt-needed-entries}.
1694 This option also has an effect on the resolution of symbols in dynamic
1695 libraries. With @option{--copy-dt-needed-entries} dynamic libraries
1696 mentioned on the command line will be recursively searched, following
1697 their DT_NEEDED tags to other libraries, in order to resolve symbols
1698 required by the output binary. With the default setting however
1699 the searching of dynamic libraries that follow it will stop with the
1700 dynamic library itself. No DT_NEEDED links will be traversed to resolve
1703 @cindex cross reference table
1706 Output a cross reference table. If a linker map file is being
1707 generated, the cross reference table is printed to the map file.
1708 Otherwise, it is printed on the standard output.
1710 The format of the table is intentionally simple, so that it may be
1711 easily processed by a script if necessary. The symbols are printed out,
1712 sorted by name. For each symbol, a list of file names is given. If the
1713 symbol is defined, the first file listed is the location of the
1714 definition. If the symbol is defined as a common value then any files
1715 where this happens appear next. Finally any files that reference the
1718 @cindex ctf variables
1719 @kindex --ctf-variables
1720 @kindex --no-ctf-variables
1721 @item --ctf-variables
1722 @item --no-ctf-variables
1723 The CTF debuginfo format supports a section which encodes the names and
1724 types of variables found in the program which do not appear in any symbol
1725 table. These variables clearly cannot be looked up by address by
1726 conventional debuggers, so the space used for their types and names is
1727 usually wasted: the types are usually small but the names are often not.
1728 @option{--ctf-variables} causes the generation of such a section.
1729 The default behaviour can be restored with @option{--no-ctf-variables}.
1731 @cindex ctf type sharing
1732 @kindex --ctf-share-types
1733 @item --ctf-share-types=@var{method}
1734 Adjust the method used to share types between translation units in CTF.
1737 @item share-unconflicted
1738 Put all types that do not have ambiguous definitions into the shared dictionary,
1739 where debuggers can easily access them, even if they only occur in one
1740 translation unit. This is the default.
1742 @item share-duplicated
1743 Put only types that occur in multiple translation units into the shared
1744 dictionary: types with only one definition go into per-translation-unit
1745 dictionaries. Types with ambiguous definitions in multiple translation units
1746 always go into per-translation-unit dictionaries. This tends to make the CTF
1747 larger, but may reduce the amount of CTF in the shared dictionary. For very
1748 large projects this may speed up opening the CTF and save memory in the CTF
1749 consumer at runtime.
1752 @cindex common allocation
1753 @kindex --no-define-common
1754 @item --no-define-common
1755 This option inhibits the assignment of addresses to common symbols.
1756 The script command @code{INHIBIT_COMMON_ALLOCATION} has the same effect.
1757 @xref{Miscellaneous Commands}.
1759 The @samp{--no-define-common} option allows decoupling
1760 the decision to assign addresses to Common symbols from the choice
1761 of the output file type; otherwise a non-Relocatable output type
1762 forces assigning addresses to Common symbols.
1763 Using @samp{--no-define-common} allows Common symbols that are referenced
1764 from a shared library to be assigned addresses only in the main program.
1765 This eliminates the unused duplicate space in the shared library,
1766 and also prevents any possible confusion over resolving to the wrong
1767 duplicate when there are many dynamic modules with specialized search
1768 paths for runtime symbol resolution.
1770 @cindex group allocation in linker script
1771 @cindex section groups
1773 @kindex --force-group-allocation
1774 @item --force-group-allocation
1775 This option causes the linker to place section group members like
1776 normal input sections, and to delete the section groups. This is the
1777 default behaviour for a final link but this option can be used to
1778 change the behaviour of a relocatable link (@samp{-r}). The script
1779 command @code{FORCE_GROUP_ALLOCATION} has the same
1780 effect. @xref{Miscellaneous Commands}.
1782 @cindex symbols, from command line
1783 @kindex --defsym=@var{symbol}=@var{exp}
1784 @item --defsym=@var{symbol}=@var{expression}
1785 Create a global symbol in the output file, containing the absolute
1786 address given by @var{expression}. You may use this option as many
1787 times as necessary to define multiple symbols in the command line. A
1788 limited form of arithmetic is supported for the @var{expression} in this
1789 context: you may give a hexadecimal constant or the name of an existing
1790 symbol, or use @code{+} and @code{-} to add or subtract hexadecimal
1791 constants or symbols. If you need more elaborate expressions, consider
1792 using the linker command language from a script (@pxref{Assignments}).
1793 @emph{Note:} there should be no white space between @var{symbol}, the
1794 equals sign (``@key{=}''), and @var{expression}.
1796 The linker processes @samp{--defsym} arguments and @samp{-T} arguments
1797 in order, placing @samp{--defsym} before @samp{-T} will define the
1798 symbol before the linker script from @samp{-T} is processed, while
1799 placing @samp{--defsym} after @samp{-T} will define the symbol after
1800 the linker script has been processed. This difference has
1801 consequences for expressions within the linker script that use the
1802 @samp{--defsym} symbols, which order is correct will depend on what
1803 you are trying to achieve.
1805 @cindex demangling, from command line
1806 @kindex --demangle[=@var{style}]
1807 @kindex --no-demangle
1808 @item --demangle[=@var{style}]
1809 @itemx --no-demangle
1810 These options control whether to demangle symbol names in error messages
1811 and other output. When the linker is told to demangle, it tries to
1812 present symbol names in a readable fashion: it strips leading
1813 underscores if they are used by the object file format, and converts C++
1814 mangled symbol names into user readable names. Different compilers have
1815 different mangling styles. The optional demangling style argument can be used
1816 to choose an appropriate demangling style for your compiler. The linker will
1817 demangle by default unless the environment variable @samp{COLLECT_NO_DEMANGLE}
1818 is set. These options may be used to override the default.
1820 @cindex dynamic linker, from command line
1821 @kindex -I@var{file}
1822 @kindex --dynamic-linker=@var{file}
1824 @itemx --dynamic-linker=@var{file}
1825 Set the name of the dynamic linker. This is only meaningful when
1826 generating dynamically linked ELF executables. The default dynamic
1827 linker is normally correct; don't use this unless you know what you are
1830 @kindex --no-dynamic-linker
1831 @item --no-dynamic-linker
1832 When producing an executable file, omit the request for a dynamic
1833 linker to be used at load-time. This is only meaningful for ELF
1834 executables that contain dynamic relocations, and usually requires
1835 entry point code that is capable of processing these relocations.
1837 @kindex --embedded-relocs
1838 @item --embedded-relocs
1839 This option is similar to the @option{--emit-relocs} option except
1840 that the relocs are stored in a target-specific section. This option
1841 is only supported by the @samp{BFIN}, @samp{CR16} and @emph{M68K}
1844 @kindex --disable-multiple-abs-defs
1845 @item --disable-multiple-abs-defs
1846 Do not allow multiple definitions with symbols included
1847 in filename invoked by -R or --just-symbols
1849 @kindex --fatal-warnings
1850 @kindex --no-fatal-warnings
1851 @item --fatal-warnings
1852 @itemx --no-fatal-warnings
1853 Treat all warnings as errors. The default behaviour can be restored
1854 with the option @option{--no-fatal-warnings}.
1856 @kindex --force-exe-suffix
1857 @item --force-exe-suffix
1858 Make sure that an output file has a .exe suffix.
1860 If a successfully built fully linked output file does not have a
1861 @code{.exe} or @code{.dll} suffix, this option forces the linker to copy
1862 the output file to one of the same name with a @code{.exe} suffix. This
1863 option is useful when using unmodified Unix makefiles on a Microsoft
1864 Windows host, since some versions of Windows won't run an image unless
1865 it ends in a @code{.exe} suffix.
1867 @kindex --gc-sections
1868 @kindex --no-gc-sections
1869 @cindex garbage collection
1871 @itemx --no-gc-sections
1872 Enable garbage collection of unused input sections. It is ignored on
1873 targets that do not support this option. The default behaviour (of not
1874 performing this garbage collection) can be restored by specifying
1875 @samp{--no-gc-sections} on the command line. Note that garbage
1876 collection for COFF and PE format targets is supported, but the
1877 implementation is currently considered to be experimental.
1879 @samp{--gc-sections} decides which input sections are used by
1880 examining symbols and relocations. The section containing the entry
1881 symbol and all sections containing symbols undefined on the
1882 command-line will be kept, as will sections containing symbols
1883 referenced by dynamic objects. Note that when building shared
1884 libraries, the linker must assume that any visible symbol is
1885 referenced. Once this initial set of sections has been determined,
1886 the linker recursively marks as used any section referenced by their
1887 relocations. See @samp{--entry}, @samp{--undefined}, and
1888 @samp{--gc-keep-exported}.
1890 This option can be set when doing a partial link (enabled with option
1891 @samp{-r}). In this case the root of symbols kept must be explicitly
1892 specified either by one of the options @samp{--entry},
1893 @samp{--undefined}, or @samp{--gc-keep-exported} or by a @code{ENTRY}
1894 command in the linker script.
1896 As a GNU extension, ELF input sections marked with the
1897 @code{SHF_GNU_RETAIN} flag will not be garbage collected.
1899 @kindex --print-gc-sections
1900 @kindex --no-print-gc-sections
1901 @cindex garbage collection
1902 @item --print-gc-sections
1903 @itemx --no-print-gc-sections
1904 List all sections removed by garbage collection. The listing is
1905 printed on stderr. This option is only effective if garbage
1906 collection has been enabled via the @samp{--gc-sections}) option. The
1907 default behaviour (of not listing the sections that are removed) can
1908 be restored by specifying @samp{--no-print-gc-sections} on the command
1911 @kindex --gc-keep-exported
1912 @cindex garbage collection
1913 @item --gc-keep-exported
1914 When @samp{--gc-sections} is enabled, this option prevents garbage
1915 collection of unused input sections that contain global symbols having
1916 default or protected visibility. This option is intended to be used for
1917 executables where unreferenced sections would otherwise be garbage
1918 collected regardless of the external visibility of contained symbols.
1919 Note that this option has no effect when linking shared objects since
1920 it is already the default behaviour. This option is only supported for
1923 @kindex --print-output-format
1924 @cindex output format
1925 @item --print-output-format
1926 Print the name of the default output format (perhaps influenced by
1927 other command-line options). This is the string that would appear
1928 in an @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT} linker script command (@pxref{File Commands}).
1930 @kindex --print-memory-usage
1931 @cindex memory usage
1932 @item --print-memory-usage
1933 Print used size, total size and used size of memory regions created with
1934 the @ref{MEMORY} command. This is useful on embedded targets to have a
1935 quick view of amount of free memory. The format of the output has one
1936 headline and one line per region. It is both human readable and easily
1937 parsable by tools. Here is an example of an output:
1940 Memory region Used Size Region Size %age Used
1941 ROM: 256 KB 1 MB 25.00%
1942 RAM: 32 B 2 GB 0.00%
1949 Print a summary of the command-line options on the standard output and exit.
1951 @kindex --target-help
1953 Print a summary of all target-specific options on the standard output and exit.
1955 @kindex -Map=@var{mapfile}
1956 @item -Map=@var{mapfile}
1957 Print a link map to the file @var{mapfile}. See the description of the
1958 @option{-M} option, above. If @var{mapfile} is just the character
1959 @code{-} then the map will be written to stdout.
1961 Specifying a directory as @var{mapfile} causes the linker map to be
1962 written as a file inside the directory. Normally name of the file
1963 inside the directory is computed as the basename of the @var{output}
1964 file with @code{.map} appended. If however the special character
1965 @code{%} is used then this will be replaced by the full path of the
1966 output file. Additionally if there are any characters after the
1967 @var{%} symbol then @code{.map} will no longer be appended.
1970 -o foo.exe -Map=bar [Creates ./bar]
1971 -o ../dir/foo.exe -Map=bar [Creates ./bar]
1972 -o foo.exe -Map=../dir [Creates ../dir/foo.exe.map]
1973 -o ../dir2/foo.exe -Map=../dir [Creates ../dir/foo.exe.map]
1974 -o foo.exe -Map=% [Creates ./foo.exe.map]
1975 -o ../dir/foo.exe -Map=% [Creates ../dir/foo.exe.map]
1976 -o foo.exe -Map=%.bar [Creates ./foo.exe.bar]
1977 -o ../dir/foo.exe -Map=%.bar [Creates ../dir/foo.exe.bar]
1978 -o ../dir2/foo.exe -Map=../dir/% [Creates ../dir/../dir2/foo.exe.map]
1979 -o ../dir2/foo.exe -Map=../dir/%.bar [Creates ../dir/../dir2/foo.exe.bar]
1982 It is an error to specify more than one @code{%} character.
1984 If the map file already exists then it will be overwritten by this
1987 @cindex memory usage
1988 @kindex --no-keep-memory
1989 @item --no-keep-memory
1990 @command{ld} normally optimizes for speed over memory usage by caching the
1991 symbol tables of input files in memory. This option tells @command{ld} to
1992 instead optimize for memory usage, by rereading the symbol tables as
1993 necessary. This may be required if @command{ld} runs out of memory space
1994 while linking a large executable.
1996 @kindex --no-undefined
1999 @item --no-undefined
2001 Report unresolved symbol references from regular object files. This
2002 is done even if the linker is creating a non-symbolic shared library.
2003 The switch @option{--[no-]allow-shlib-undefined} controls the
2004 behaviour for reporting unresolved references found in shared
2005 libraries being linked in.
2007 The effects of this option can be reverted by using @code{-z undefs}.
2009 @kindex --allow-multiple-definition
2011 @item --allow-multiple-definition
2013 Normally when a symbol is defined multiple times, the linker will
2014 report a fatal error. These options allow multiple definitions and the
2015 first definition will be used.
2017 @kindex --allow-shlib-undefined
2018 @kindex --no-allow-shlib-undefined
2019 @item --allow-shlib-undefined
2020 @itemx --no-allow-shlib-undefined
2021 Allows or disallows undefined symbols in shared libraries.
2022 This switch is similar to @option{--no-undefined} except that it
2023 determines the behaviour when the undefined symbols are in a
2024 shared library rather than a regular object file. It does not affect
2025 how undefined symbols in regular object files are handled.
2027 The default behaviour is to report errors for any undefined symbols
2028 referenced in shared libraries if the linker is being used to create
2029 an executable, but to allow them if the linker is being used to create
2032 The reasons for allowing undefined symbol references in shared
2033 libraries specified at link time are that:
2037 A shared library specified at link time may not be the same as the one
2038 that is available at load time, so the symbol might actually be
2039 resolvable at load time.
2041 There are some operating systems, eg BeOS and HPPA, where undefined
2042 symbols in shared libraries are normal.
2044 The BeOS kernel for example patches shared libraries at load time to
2045 select whichever function is most appropriate for the current
2046 architecture. This is used, for example, to dynamically select an
2047 appropriate memset function.
2050 @kindex --error-handling-script=@var{scriptname}
2051 @item --error-handling-script=@var{scriptname}
2052 If this option is provided then the linker will invoke
2053 @var{scriptname} whenever an error is encountered. Currently however
2054 only two kinds of error are supported: missing symbols and missing
2055 libraries. Two arguments will be passed to script: the keyword
2056 ``undefined-symbol'' or `missing-lib'' and the @var{name} of the
2057 undefined symbol or missing library. The intention is that the script
2058 will provide suggestions to the user as to where the symbol or library
2059 might be found. After the script has finished then the normal linker
2060 error message will be displayed.
2062 The availability of this option is controlled by a configure time
2063 switch, so it may not be present in specific implementations.
2065 @kindex --no-undefined-version
2066 @item --no-undefined-version
2067 Normally when a symbol has an undefined version, the linker will ignore
2068 it. This option disallows symbols with undefined version and a fatal error
2069 will be issued instead.
2071 @kindex --default-symver
2072 @item --default-symver
2073 Create and use a default symbol version (the soname) for unversioned
2076 @kindex --default-imported-symver
2077 @item --default-imported-symver
2078 Create and use a default symbol version (the soname) for unversioned
2081 @kindex --no-warn-mismatch
2082 @item --no-warn-mismatch
2083 Normally @command{ld} will give an error if you try to link together input
2084 files that are mismatched for some reason, perhaps because they have
2085 been compiled for different processors or for different endiannesses.
2086 This option tells @command{ld} that it should silently permit such possible
2087 errors. This option should only be used with care, in cases when you
2088 have taken some special action that ensures that the linker errors are
2091 @kindex --no-warn-search-mismatch
2092 @item --no-warn-search-mismatch
2093 Normally @command{ld} will give a warning if it finds an incompatible
2094 library during a library search. This option silences the warning.
2096 @kindex --no-whole-archive
2097 @item --no-whole-archive
2098 Turn off the effect of the @option{--whole-archive} option for subsequent
2101 @cindex output file after errors
2102 @kindex --noinhibit-exec
2103 @item --noinhibit-exec
2104 Retain the executable output file whenever it is still usable.
2105 Normally, the linker will not produce an output file if it encounters
2106 errors during the link process; it exits without writing an output file
2107 when it issues any error whatsoever.
2111 Only search library directories explicitly specified on the
2112 command line. Library directories specified in linker scripts
2113 (including linker scripts specified on the command line) are ignored.
2115 @ifclear SingleFormat
2116 @kindex --oformat=@var{output-format}
2117 @item --oformat=@var{output-format}
2118 @command{ld} may be configured to support more than one kind of object
2119 file. If your @command{ld} is configured this way, you can use the
2120 @samp{--oformat} option to specify the binary format for the output
2121 object file. Even when @command{ld} is configured to support alternative
2122 object formats, you don't usually need to specify this, as @command{ld}
2123 should be configured to produce as a default output format the most
2124 usual format on each machine. @var{output-format} is a text string, the
2125 name of a particular format supported by the BFD libraries. (You can
2126 list the available binary formats with @samp{objdump -i}.) The script
2127 command @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT} can also specify the output format, but
2128 this option overrides it. @xref{BFD}.
2131 @kindex --out-implib
2132 @item --out-implib @var{file}
2133 Create an import library in @var{file} corresponding to the executable
2134 the linker is generating (eg. a DLL or ELF program). This import
2135 library (which should be called @code{*.dll.a} or @code{*.a} for DLLs)
2136 may be used to link clients against the generated executable; this
2137 behaviour makes it possible to skip a separate import library creation
2138 step (eg. @code{dlltool} for DLLs). This option is only available for
2139 the i386 PE and ELF targetted ports of the linker.
2142 @kindex --pic-executable
2144 @itemx --pic-executable
2145 @cindex position independent executables
2146 Create a position independent executable. This is currently only supported on
2147 ELF platforms. Position independent executables are similar to shared
2148 libraries in that they are relocated by the dynamic linker to the virtual
2149 address the OS chooses for them (which can vary between invocations). Like
2150 normal dynamically linked executables they can be executed and symbols
2151 defined in the executable cannot be overridden by shared libraries.
2155 This option is ignored for Linux compatibility.
2159 This option is ignored for SVR4 compatibility.
2162 @cindex synthesizing linker
2163 @cindex relaxing addressing modes
2167 An option with machine dependent effects.
2169 This option is only supported on a few targets.
2172 @xref{H8/300,,@command{ld} and the H8/300}.
2175 @xref{Xtensa,, @command{ld} and Xtensa Processors}.
2178 @xref{M68HC11/68HC12,,@command{ld} and the 68HC11 and 68HC12}.
2181 @xref{Nios II,,@command{ld} and the Altera Nios II}.
2184 @xref{PowerPC ELF32,,@command{ld} and PowerPC 32-bit ELF Support}.
2187 On some platforms the @option{--relax} option performs target specific,
2188 global optimizations that become possible when the linker resolves
2189 addressing in the program, such as relaxing address modes,
2190 synthesizing new instructions, selecting shorter version of current
2191 instructions, and combining constant values.
2193 On some platforms these link time global optimizations may make symbolic
2194 debugging of the resulting executable impossible.
2196 This is known to be the case for the Matsushita MN10200 and MN10300
2197 family of processors.
2200 On platforms where the feature is supported, the option
2201 @option{--no-relax} will disable it.
2203 On platforms where the feature is not supported, both @option{--relax}
2204 and @option{--no-relax} are accepted, but ignored.
2206 @cindex retaining specified symbols
2207 @cindex stripping all but some symbols
2208 @cindex symbols, retaining selectively
2209 @kindex --retain-symbols-file=@var{filename}
2210 @item --retain-symbols-file=@var{filename}
2211 Retain @emph{only} the symbols listed in the file @var{filename},
2212 discarding all others. @var{filename} is simply a flat file, with one
2213 symbol name per line. This option is especially useful in environments
2217 where a large global symbol table is accumulated gradually, to conserve
2220 @samp{--retain-symbols-file} does @emph{not} discard undefined symbols,
2221 or symbols needed for relocations.
2223 You may only specify @samp{--retain-symbols-file} once in the command
2224 line. It overrides @samp{-s} and @samp{-S}.
2227 @item -rpath=@var{dir}
2228 @cindex runtime library search path
2229 @kindex -rpath=@var{dir}
2230 Add a directory to the runtime library search path. This is used when
2231 linking an ELF executable with shared objects. All @option{-rpath}
2232 arguments are concatenated and passed to the runtime linker, which uses
2233 them to locate shared objects at runtime.
2235 The @option{-rpath} option is also used when locating shared objects which
2236 are needed by shared objects explicitly included in the link; see the
2237 description of the @option{-rpath-link} option. Searching @option{-rpath}
2238 in this way is only supported by native linkers and cross linkers which
2239 have been configured with the @option{--with-sysroot} option.
2241 If @option{-rpath} is not used when linking an ELF executable, the
2242 contents of the environment variable @code{LD_RUN_PATH} will be used if it
2245 The @option{-rpath} option may also be used on SunOS. By default, on
2246 SunOS, the linker will form a runtime search path out of all the
2247 @option{-L} options it is given. If a @option{-rpath} option is used, the
2248 runtime search path will be formed exclusively using the @option{-rpath}
2249 options, ignoring the @option{-L} options. This can be useful when using
2250 gcc, which adds many @option{-L} options which may be on NFS mounted
2253 For compatibility with other ELF linkers, if the @option{-R} option is
2254 followed by a directory name, rather than a file name, it is treated as
2255 the @option{-rpath} option.
2259 @cindex link-time runtime library search path
2260 @kindex -rpath-link=@var{dir}
2261 @item -rpath-link=@var{dir}
2262 When using ELF or SunOS, one shared library may require another. This
2263 happens when an @code{ld -shared} link includes a shared library as one
2266 When the linker encounters such a dependency when doing a non-shared,
2267 non-relocatable link, it will automatically try to locate the required
2268 shared library and include it in the link, if it is not included
2269 explicitly. In such a case, the @option{-rpath-link} option
2270 specifies the first set of directories to search. The
2271 @option{-rpath-link} option may specify a sequence of directory names
2272 either by specifying a list of names separated by colons, or by
2273 appearing multiple times.
2275 The tokens @var{$ORIGIN} and @var{$LIB} can appear in these search
2276 directories. They will be replaced by the full path to the directory
2277 containing the program or shared object in the case of @var{$ORIGIN}
2278 and either @samp{lib} - for 32-bit binaries - or @samp{lib64} - for
2279 64-bit binaries - in the case of @var{$LIB}.
2281 The alternative form of these tokens - @var{$@{ORIGIN@}} and
2282 @var{$@{LIB@}} can also be used. The token @var{$PLATFORM} is not
2285 This option should be used with caution as it overrides the search path
2286 that may have been hard compiled into a shared library. In such a case it
2287 is possible to use unintentionally a different search path than the
2288 runtime linker would do.
2290 The linker uses the following search paths to locate required shared
2295 Any directories specified by @option{-rpath-link} options.
2297 Any directories specified by @option{-rpath} options. The difference
2298 between @option{-rpath} and @option{-rpath-link} is that directories
2299 specified by @option{-rpath} options are included in the executable and
2300 used at runtime, whereas the @option{-rpath-link} option is only effective
2301 at link time. Searching @option{-rpath} in this way is only supported
2302 by native linkers and cross linkers which have been configured with
2303 the @option{--with-sysroot} option.
2305 On an ELF system, for native linkers, if the @option{-rpath} and
2306 @option{-rpath-link} options were not used, search the contents of the
2307 environment variable @code{LD_RUN_PATH}.
2309 On SunOS, if the @option{-rpath} option was not used, search any
2310 directories specified using @option{-L} options.
2312 For a native linker, search the contents of the environment
2313 variable @code{LD_LIBRARY_PATH}.
2315 For a native ELF linker, the directories in @code{DT_RUNPATH} or
2316 @code{DT_RPATH} of a shared library are searched for shared
2317 libraries needed by it. The @code{DT_RPATH} entries are ignored if
2318 @code{DT_RUNPATH} entries exist.
2320 The default directories, normally @file{/lib} and @file{/usr/lib}.
2322 For a linker for a Linux system, if the file @file{/etc/ld.so.conf}
2323 exists, the list of directories found in that file. Note: the path
2324 to this file is prefixed with the @code{sysroot} value, if that is
2325 defined, and then any @code{prefix} string if the linker was
2326 configured with the @command{--prefix=<path>} option.
2328 For a native linker on a FreeBSD system, any directories specified by
2329 the @code{_PATH_ELF_HINTS} macro defined in the @file{elf-hints.h}
2332 Any directories specifed by a @code{SEARCH_DIR} command in the
2333 linker script being used.
2336 Note however on Linux based systems there is an additional caveat: If
2337 the @option{--as-needed} option is active @emph{and} a shared library
2338 is located which would normally satisfy the search @emph{and} this
2339 library does not have DT_NEEDED tag for @file{libc.so}
2340 @emph{and} there is a shared library later on in the set of search
2341 directories which also satisfies the search @emph{and}
2342 this second shared library does have a DT_NEEDED tag for
2343 @file{libc.so} @emph{then} the second library will be selected instead
2346 If the required shared library is not found, the linker will issue a
2347 warning and continue with the link.
2355 @cindex shared libraries
2356 Create a shared library. This is currently only supported on ELF, XCOFF
2357 and SunOS platforms. On SunOS, the linker will automatically create a
2358 shared library if the @option{-e} option is not used and there are
2359 undefined symbols in the link.
2361 @kindex --sort-common
2363 @itemx --sort-common=ascending
2364 @itemx --sort-common=descending
2365 This option tells @command{ld} to sort the common symbols by alignment in
2366 ascending or descending order when it places them in the appropriate output
2367 sections. The symbol alignments considered are sixteen-byte or larger,
2368 eight-byte, four-byte, two-byte, and one-byte. This is to prevent gaps
2369 between symbols due to alignment constraints. If no sorting order is
2370 specified, then descending order is assumed.
2372 @kindex --sort-section=name
2373 @item --sort-section=name
2374 This option will apply @code{SORT_BY_NAME} to all wildcard section
2375 patterns in the linker script.
2377 @kindex --sort-section=alignment
2378 @item --sort-section=alignment
2379 This option will apply @code{SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT} to all wildcard section
2380 patterns in the linker script.
2382 @kindex --spare-dynamic-tags
2383 @item --spare-dynamic-tags=@var{count}
2384 This option specifies the number of empty slots to leave in the
2385 .dynamic section of ELF shared objects. Empty slots may be needed by
2386 post processing tools, such as the prelinker. The default is 5.
2388 @kindex --split-by-file
2389 @item --split-by-file[=@var{size}]
2390 Similar to @option{--split-by-reloc} but creates a new output section for
2391 each input file when @var{size} is reached. @var{size} defaults to a
2392 size of 1 if not given.
2394 @kindex --split-by-reloc
2395 @item --split-by-reloc[=@var{count}]
2396 Tries to creates extra sections in the output file so that no single
2397 output section in the file contains more than @var{count} relocations.
2398 This is useful when generating huge relocatable files for downloading into
2399 certain real time kernels with the COFF object file format; since COFF
2400 cannot represent more than 65535 relocations in a single section. Note
2401 that this will fail to work with object file formats which do not
2402 support arbitrary sections. The linker will not split up individual
2403 input sections for redistribution, so if a single input section contains
2404 more than @var{count} relocations one output section will contain that
2405 many relocations. @var{count} defaults to a value of 32768.
2409 Compute and display statistics about the operation of the linker, such
2410 as execution time and memory usage.
2412 @kindex --sysroot=@var{directory}
2413 @item --sysroot=@var{directory}
2414 Use @var{directory} as the location of the sysroot, overriding the
2415 configure-time default. This option is only supported by linkers
2416 that were configured using @option{--with-sysroot}.
2420 This is used by COFF/PE based targets to create a task-linked object
2421 file where all of the global symbols have been converted to statics.
2423 @kindex --traditional-format
2424 @cindex traditional format
2425 @item --traditional-format
2426 For some targets, the output of @command{ld} is different in some ways from
2427 the output of some existing linker. This switch requests @command{ld} to
2428 use the traditional format instead.
2431 For example, on SunOS, @command{ld} combines duplicate entries in the
2432 symbol string table. This can reduce the size of an output file with
2433 full debugging information by over 30 percent. Unfortunately, the SunOS
2434 @code{dbx} program can not read the resulting program (@code{gdb} has no
2435 trouble). The @samp{--traditional-format} switch tells @command{ld} to not
2436 combine duplicate entries.
2438 @kindex --section-start=@var{sectionname}=@var{org}
2439 @item --section-start=@var{sectionname}=@var{org}
2440 Locate a section in the output file at the absolute
2441 address given by @var{org}. You may use this option as many
2442 times as necessary to locate multiple sections in the command
2444 @var{org} must be a single hexadecimal integer;
2445 for compatibility with other linkers, you may omit the leading
2446 @samp{0x} usually associated with hexadecimal values. @emph{Note:} there
2447 should be no white space between @var{sectionname}, the equals
2448 sign (``@key{=}''), and @var{org}.
2450 @kindex -Tbss=@var{org}
2451 @kindex -Tdata=@var{org}
2452 @kindex -Ttext=@var{org}
2453 @cindex segment origins, cmd line
2454 @item -Tbss=@var{org}
2455 @itemx -Tdata=@var{org}
2456 @itemx -Ttext=@var{org}
2457 Same as @option{--section-start}, with @code{.bss}, @code{.data} or
2458 @code{.text} as the @var{sectionname}.
2460 @kindex -Ttext-segment=@var{org}
2461 @item -Ttext-segment=@var{org}
2462 @cindex text segment origin, cmd line
2463 When creating an ELF executable, it will set the address of the first
2464 byte of the text segment.
2466 @kindex -Trodata-segment=@var{org}
2467 @item -Trodata-segment=@var{org}
2468 @cindex rodata segment origin, cmd line
2469 When creating an ELF executable or shared object for a target where
2470 the read-only data is in its own segment separate from the executable
2471 text, it will set the address of the first byte of the read-only data segment.
2473 @kindex -Tldata-segment=@var{org}
2474 @item -Tldata-segment=@var{org}
2475 @cindex ldata segment origin, cmd line
2476 When creating an ELF executable or shared object for x86-64 medium memory
2477 model, it will set the address of the first byte of the ldata segment.
2479 @kindex --unresolved-symbols
2480 @item --unresolved-symbols=@var{method}
2481 Determine how to handle unresolved symbols. There are four possible
2482 values for @samp{method}:
2486 Do not report any unresolved symbols.
2489 Report all unresolved symbols. This is the default.
2491 @item ignore-in-object-files
2492 Report unresolved symbols that are contained in shared libraries, but
2493 ignore them if they come from regular object files.
2495 @item ignore-in-shared-libs
2496 Report unresolved symbols that come from regular object files, but
2497 ignore them if they come from shared libraries. This can be useful
2498 when creating a dynamic binary and it is known that all the shared
2499 libraries that it should be referencing are included on the linker's
2503 The behaviour for shared libraries on their own can also be controlled
2504 by the @option{--[no-]allow-shlib-undefined} option.
2506 Normally the linker will generate an error message for each reported
2507 unresolved symbol but the option @option{--warn-unresolved-symbols}
2508 can change this to a warning.
2510 @kindex --verbose[=@var{NUMBER}]
2511 @cindex verbose[=@var{NUMBER}]
2513 @itemx --verbose[=@var{NUMBER}]
2514 Display the version number for @command{ld} and list the linker emulations
2515 supported. Display which input files can and cannot be opened. Display
2516 the linker script being used by the linker. If the optional @var{NUMBER}
2517 argument > 1, plugin symbol status will also be displayed.
2519 @kindex --version-script=@var{version-scriptfile}
2520 @cindex version script, symbol versions
2521 @item --version-script=@var{version-scriptfile}
2522 Specify the name of a version script to the linker. This is typically
2523 used when creating shared libraries to specify additional information
2524 about the version hierarchy for the library being created. This option
2525 is only fully supported on ELF platforms which support shared libraries;
2526 see @ref{VERSION}. It is partially supported on PE platforms, which can
2527 use version scripts to filter symbol visibility in auto-export mode: any
2528 symbols marked @samp{local} in the version script will not be exported.
2531 @kindex --warn-common
2532 @cindex warnings, on combining symbols
2533 @cindex combining symbols, warnings on
2535 Warn when a common symbol is combined with another common symbol or with
2536 a symbol definition. Unix linkers allow this somewhat sloppy practice,
2537 but linkers on some other operating systems do not. This option allows
2538 you to find potential problems from combining global symbols.
2539 Unfortunately, some C libraries use this practice, so you may get some
2540 warnings about symbols in the libraries as well as in your programs.
2542 There are three kinds of global symbols, illustrated here by C examples:
2546 A definition, which goes in the initialized data section of the output
2550 An undefined reference, which does not allocate space.
2551 There must be either a definition or a common symbol for the
2555 A common symbol. If there are only (one or more) common symbols for a
2556 variable, it goes in the uninitialized data area of the output file.
2557 The linker merges multiple common symbols for the same variable into a
2558 single symbol. If they are of different sizes, it picks the largest
2559 size. The linker turns a common symbol into a declaration, if there is
2560 a definition of the same variable.
2563 The @samp{--warn-common} option can produce five kinds of warnings.
2564 Each warning consists of a pair of lines: the first describes the symbol
2565 just encountered, and the second describes the previous symbol
2566 encountered with the same name. One or both of the two symbols will be
2571 Turning a common symbol into a reference, because there is already a
2572 definition for the symbol.
2574 @var{file}(@var{section}): warning: common of `@var{symbol}'
2575 overridden by definition
2576 @var{file}(@var{section}): warning: defined here
2580 Turning a common symbol into a reference, because a later definition for
2581 the symbol is encountered. This is the same as the previous case,
2582 except that the symbols are encountered in a different order.
2584 @var{file}(@var{section}): warning: definition of `@var{symbol}'
2586 @var{file}(@var{section}): warning: common is here
2590 Merging a common symbol with a previous same-sized common symbol.
2592 @var{file}(@var{section}): warning: multiple common
2594 @var{file}(@var{section}): warning: previous common is here
2598 Merging a common symbol with a previous larger common symbol.
2600 @var{file}(@var{section}): warning: common of `@var{symbol}'
2601 overridden by larger common
2602 @var{file}(@var{section}): warning: larger common is here
2606 Merging a common symbol with a previous smaller common symbol. This is
2607 the same as the previous case, except that the symbols are
2608 encountered in a different order.
2610 @var{file}(@var{section}): warning: common of `@var{symbol}'
2611 overriding smaller common
2612 @var{file}(@var{section}): warning: smaller common is here
2616 @kindex --warn-constructors
2617 @item --warn-constructors
2618 Warn if any global constructors are used. This is only useful for a few
2619 object file formats. For formats like COFF or ELF, the linker can not
2620 detect the use of global constructors.
2622 @kindex --warn-multiple-gp
2623 @item --warn-multiple-gp
2624 Warn if multiple global pointer values are required in the output file.
2625 This is only meaningful for certain processors, such as the Alpha.
2626 Specifically, some processors put large-valued constants in a special
2627 section. A special register (the global pointer) points into the middle
2628 of this section, so that constants can be loaded efficiently via a
2629 base-register relative addressing mode. Since the offset in
2630 base-register relative mode is fixed and relatively small (e.g., 16
2631 bits), this limits the maximum size of the constant pool. Thus, in
2632 large programs, it is often necessary to use multiple global pointer
2633 values in order to be able to address all possible constants. This
2634 option causes a warning to be issued whenever this case occurs.
2637 @cindex warnings, on undefined symbols
2638 @cindex undefined symbols, warnings on
2640 Only warn once for each undefined symbol, rather than once per module
2643 @kindex --warn-section-align
2644 @cindex warnings, on section alignment
2645 @cindex section alignment, warnings on
2646 @item --warn-section-align
2647 Warn if the address of an output section is changed because of
2648 alignment. Typically, the alignment will be set by an input section.
2649 The address will only be changed if it not explicitly specified; that
2650 is, if the @code{SECTIONS} command does not specify a start address for
2651 the section (@pxref{SECTIONS}).
2653 @kindex --warn-textrel
2654 @item --warn-textrel
2655 Warn if the linker adds DT_TEXTREL to a position-independent executable
2658 @kindex --warn-alternate-em
2659 @item --warn-alternate-em
2660 Warn if an object has alternate ELF machine code.
2662 @kindex --warn-unresolved-symbols
2663 @item --warn-unresolved-symbols
2664 If the linker is going to report an unresolved symbol (see the option
2665 @option{--unresolved-symbols}) it will normally generate an error.
2666 This option makes it generate a warning instead.
2668 @kindex --error-unresolved-symbols
2669 @item --error-unresolved-symbols
2670 This restores the linker's default behaviour of generating errors when
2671 it is reporting unresolved symbols.
2673 @kindex --whole-archive
2674 @cindex including an entire archive
2675 @item --whole-archive
2676 For each archive mentioned on the command line after the
2677 @option{--whole-archive} option, include every object file in the archive
2678 in the link, rather than searching the archive for the required object
2679 files. This is normally used to turn an archive file into a shared
2680 library, forcing every object to be included in the resulting shared
2681 library. This option may be used more than once.
2683 Two notes when using this option from gcc: First, gcc doesn't know
2684 about this option, so you have to use @option{-Wl,-whole-archive}.
2685 Second, don't forget to use @option{-Wl,-no-whole-archive} after your
2686 list of archives, because gcc will add its own list of archives to
2687 your link and you may not want this flag to affect those as well.
2689 @kindex --wrap=@var{symbol}
2690 @item --wrap=@var{symbol}
2691 Use a wrapper function for @var{symbol}. Any undefined reference to
2692 @var{symbol} will be resolved to @code{__wrap_@var{symbol}}. Any
2693 undefined reference to @code{__real_@var{symbol}} will be resolved to
2696 This can be used to provide a wrapper for a system function. The
2697 wrapper function should be called @code{__wrap_@var{symbol}}. If it
2698 wishes to call the system function, it should call
2699 @code{__real_@var{symbol}}.
2701 Here is a trivial example:
2705 __wrap_malloc (size_t c)
2707 printf ("malloc called with %zu\n", c);
2708 return __real_malloc (c);
2712 If you link other code with this file using @option{--wrap malloc}, then
2713 all calls to @code{malloc} will call the function @code{__wrap_malloc}
2714 instead. The call to @code{__real_malloc} in @code{__wrap_malloc} will
2715 call the real @code{malloc} function.
2717 You may wish to provide a @code{__real_malloc} function as well, so that
2718 links without the @option{--wrap} option will succeed. If you do this,
2719 you should not put the definition of @code{__real_malloc} in the same
2720 file as @code{__wrap_malloc}; if you do, the assembler may resolve the
2721 call before the linker has a chance to wrap it to @code{malloc}.
2723 Only undefined references are replaced by the linker. So, translation unit
2724 internal references to @var{symbol} are not resolved to
2725 @code{__wrap_@var{symbol}}. In the next example, the call to @code{f} in
2726 @code{g} is not resolved to @code{__wrap_f}.
2742 @kindex --eh-frame-hdr
2743 @kindex --no-eh-frame-hdr
2744 @item --eh-frame-hdr
2745 @itemx --no-eh-frame-hdr
2746 Request (@option{--eh-frame-hdr}) or suppress
2747 (@option{--no-eh-frame-hdr}) the creation of @code{.eh_frame_hdr}
2748 section and ELF @code{PT_GNU_EH_FRAME} segment header.
2750 @kindex --ld-generated-unwind-info
2751 @item --no-ld-generated-unwind-info
2752 Request creation of @code{.eh_frame} unwind info for linker
2753 generated code sections like PLT. This option is on by default
2754 if linker generated unwind info is supported.
2756 @kindex --enable-new-dtags
2757 @kindex --disable-new-dtags
2758 @item --enable-new-dtags
2759 @itemx --disable-new-dtags
2760 This linker can create the new dynamic tags in ELF. But the older ELF
2761 systems may not understand them. If you specify
2762 @option{--enable-new-dtags}, the new dynamic tags will be created as needed
2763 and older dynamic tags will be omitted.
2764 If you specify @option{--disable-new-dtags}, no new dynamic tags will be
2765 created. By default, the new dynamic tags are not created. Note that
2766 those options are only available for ELF systems.
2768 @kindex --hash-size=@var{number}
2769 @item --hash-size=@var{number}
2770 Set the default size of the linker's hash tables to a prime number
2771 close to @var{number}. Increasing this value can reduce the length of
2772 time it takes the linker to perform its tasks, at the expense of
2773 increasing the linker's memory requirements. Similarly reducing this
2774 value can reduce the memory requirements at the expense of speed.
2776 @kindex --hash-style=@var{style}
2777 @item --hash-style=@var{style}
2778 Set the type of linker's hash table(s). @var{style} can be either
2779 @code{sysv} for classic ELF @code{.hash} section, @code{gnu} for
2780 new style GNU @code{.gnu.hash} section or @code{both} for both
2781 the classic ELF @code{.hash} and new style GNU @code{.gnu.hash}
2782 hash tables. The default depends upon how the linker was configured,
2783 but for most Linux based systems it will be @code{both}.
2785 @kindex --compress-debug-sections=none
2786 @kindex --compress-debug-sections=zlib
2787 @kindex --compress-debug-sections=zlib-gnu
2788 @kindex --compress-debug-sections=zlib-gabi
2789 @item --compress-debug-sections=none
2790 @itemx --compress-debug-sections=zlib
2791 @itemx --compress-debug-sections=zlib-gnu
2792 @itemx --compress-debug-sections=zlib-gabi
2793 On ELF platforms, these options control how DWARF debug sections are
2794 compressed using zlib.
2796 @option{--compress-debug-sections=none} doesn't compress DWARF debug
2797 sections. @option{--compress-debug-sections=zlib-gnu} compresses
2798 DWARF debug sections and renames them to begin with @samp{.zdebug}
2799 instead of @samp{.debug}. @option{--compress-debug-sections=zlib-gabi}
2800 also compresses DWARF debug sections, but rather than renaming them it
2801 sets the SHF_COMPRESSED flag in the sections' headers.
2803 The @option{--compress-debug-sections=zlib} option is an alias for
2804 @option{--compress-debug-sections=zlib-gabi}.
2806 Note that this option overrides any compression in input debug
2807 sections, so if a binary is linked with @option{--compress-debug-sections=none}
2808 for example, then any compressed debug sections in input files will be
2809 uncompressed before they are copied into the output binary.
2811 The default compression behaviour varies depending upon the target
2812 involved and the configure options used to build the toolchain. The
2813 default can be determined by examining the output from the linker's
2814 @option{--help} option.
2816 @kindex --reduce-memory-overheads
2817 @item --reduce-memory-overheads
2818 This option reduces memory requirements at ld runtime, at the expense of
2819 linking speed. This was introduced to select the old O(n^2) algorithm
2820 for link map file generation, rather than the new O(n) algorithm which uses
2821 about 40% more memory for symbol storage.
2823 Another effect of the switch is to set the default hash table size to
2824 1021, which again saves memory at the cost of lengthening the linker's
2825 run time. This is not done however if the @option{--hash-size} switch
2828 The @option{--reduce-memory-overheads} switch may be also be used to
2829 enable other tradeoffs in future versions of the linker.
2832 @kindex --build-id=@var{style}
2834 @itemx --build-id=@var{style}
2835 Request the creation of a @code{.note.gnu.build-id} ELF note section
2836 or a @code{.buildid} COFF section. The contents of the note are
2837 unique bits identifying this linked file. @var{style} can be
2838 @code{uuid} to use 128 random bits, @code{sha1} to use a 160-bit
2839 @sc{SHA1} hash on the normative parts of the output contents,
2840 @code{md5} to use a 128-bit @sc{MD5} hash on the normative parts of
2841 the output contents, or @code{0x@var{hexstring}} to use a chosen bit
2842 string specified as an even number of hexadecimal digits (@code{-} and
2843 @code{:} characters between digit pairs are ignored). If @var{style}
2844 is omitted, @code{sha1} is used.
2846 The @code{md5} and @code{sha1} styles produces an identifier
2847 that is always the same in an identical output file, but will be
2848 unique among all nonidentical output files. It is not intended
2849 to be compared as a checksum for the file's contents. A linked
2850 file may be changed later by other tools, but the build ID bit
2851 string identifying the original linked file does not change.
2853 Passing @code{none} for @var{style} disables the setting from any
2854 @code{--build-id} options earlier on the command line.
2859 @subsection Options Specific to i386 PE Targets
2861 @c man begin OPTIONS
2863 The i386 PE linker supports the @option{-shared} option, which causes
2864 the output to be a dynamically linked library (DLL) instead of a
2865 normal executable. You should name the output @code{*.dll} when you
2866 use this option. In addition, the linker fully supports the standard
2867 @code{*.def} files, which may be specified on the linker command line
2868 like an object file (in fact, it should precede archives it exports
2869 symbols from, to ensure that they get linked in, just like a normal
2872 In addition to the options common to all targets, the i386 PE linker
2873 support additional command-line options that are specific to the i386
2874 PE target. Options that take values may be separated from their
2875 values by either a space or an equals sign.
2879 @kindex --add-stdcall-alias
2880 @item --add-stdcall-alias
2881 If given, symbols with a stdcall suffix (@@@var{nn}) will be exported
2882 as-is and also with the suffix stripped.
2883 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
2886 @item --base-file @var{file}
2887 Use @var{file} as the name of a file in which to save the base
2888 addresses of all the relocations needed for generating DLLs with
2890 [This is an i386 PE specific option]
2894 Create a DLL instead of a regular executable. You may also use
2895 @option{-shared} or specify a @code{LIBRARY} in a given @code{.def}
2897 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
2899 @kindex --enable-long-section-names
2900 @kindex --disable-long-section-names
2901 @item --enable-long-section-names
2902 @itemx --disable-long-section-names
2903 The PE variants of the COFF object format add an extension that permits
2904 the use of section names longer than eight characters, the normal limit
2905 for COFF. By default, these names are only allowed in object files, as
2906 fully-linked executable images do not carry the COFF string table required
2907 to support the longer names. As a GNU extension, it is possible to
2908 allow their use in executable images as well, or to (probably pointlessly!)
2909 disallow it in object files, by using these two options. Executable images
2910 generated with these long section names are slightly non-standard, carrying
2911 as they do a string table, and may generate confusing output when examined
2912 with non-GNU PE-aware tools, such as file viewers and dumpers. However,
2913 GDB relies on the use of PE long section names to find Dwarf-2 debug
2914 information sections in an executable image at runtime, and so if neither
2915 option is specified on the command-line, @command{ld} will enable long
2916 section names, overriding the default and technically correct behaviour,
2917 when it finds the presence of debug information while linking an executable
2918 image and not stripping symbols.
2919 [This option is valid for all PE targeted ports of the linker]
2921 @kindex --enable-stdcall-fixup
2922 @kindex --disable-stdcall-fixup
2923 @item --enable-stdcall-fixup
2924 @itemx --disable-stdcall-fixup
2925 If the link finds a symbol that it cannot resolve, it will attempt to
2926 do ``fuzzy linking'' by looking for another defined symbol that differs
2927 only in the format of the symbol name (cdecl vs stdcall) and will
2928 resolve that symbol by linking to the match. For example, the
2929 undefined symbol @code{_foo} might be linked to the function
2930 @code{_foo@@12}, or the undefined symbol @code{_bar@@16} might be linked
2931 to the function @code{_bar}. When the linker does this, it prints a
2932 warning, since it normally should have failed to link, but sometimes
2933 import libraries generated from third-party dlls may need this feature
2934 to be usable. If you specify @option{--enable-stdcall-fixup}, this
2935 feature is fully enabled and warnings are not printed. If you specify
2936 @option{--disable-stdcall-fixup}, this feature is disabled and such
2937 mismatches are considered to be errors.
2938 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
2940 @kindex --leading-underscore
2941 @kindex --no-leading-underscore
2942 @item --leading-underscore
2943 @itemx --no-leading-underscore
2944 For most targets default symbol-prefix is an underscore and is defined
2945 in target's description. By this option it is possible to
2946 disable/enable the default underscore symbol-prefix.
2948 @cindex DLLs, creating
2949 @kindex --export-all-symbols
2950 @item --export-all-symbols
2951 If given, all global symbols in the objects used to build a DLL will
2952 be exported by the DLL. Note that this is the default if there
2953 otherwise wouldn't be any exported symbols. When symbols are
2954 explicitly exported via DEF files or implicitly exported via function
2955 attributes, the default is to not export anything else unless this
2956 option is given. Note that the symbols @code{DllMain@@12},
2957 @code{DllEntryPoint@@0}, @code{DllMainCRTStartup@@12}, and
2958 @code{impure_ptr} will not be automatically
2959 exported. Also, symbols imported from other DLLs will not be
2960 re-exported, nor will symbols specifying the DLL's internal layout
2961 such as those beginning with @code{_head_} or ending with
2962 @code{_iname}. In addition, no symbols from @code{libgcc},
2963 @code{libstd++}, @code{libmingw32}, or @code{crtX.o} will be exported.
2964 Symbols whose names begin with @code{__rtti_} or @code{__builtin_} will
2965 not be exported, to help with C++ DLLs. Finally, there is an
2966 extensive list of cygwin-private symbols that are not exported
2967 (obviously, this applies on when building DLLs for cygwin targets).
2968 These cygwin-excludes are: @code{_cygwin_dll_entry@@12},
2969 @code{_cygwin_crt0_common@@8}, @code{_cygwin_noncygwin_dll_entry@@12},
2970 @code{_fmode}, @code{_impure_ptr}, @code{cygwin_attach_dll},
2971 @code{cygwin_premain0}, @code{cygwin_premain1}, @code{cygwin_premain2},
2972 @code{cygwin_premain3}, and @code{environ}.
2973 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
2975 @kindex --exclude-symbols
2976 @item --exclude-symbols @var{symbol},@var{symbol},...
2977 Specifies a list of symbols which should not be automatically
2978 exported. The symbol names may be delimited by commas or colons.
2979 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
2981 @kindex --exclude-all-symbols
2982 @item --exclude-all-symbols
2983 Specifies no symbols should be automatically exported.
2984 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
2986 @kindex --file-alignment
2987 @item --file-alignment
2988 Specify the file alignment. Sections in the file will always begin at
2989 file offsets which are multiples of this number. This defaults to
2991 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
2995 @item --heap @var{reserve}
2996 @itemx --heap @var{reserve},@var{commit}
2997 Specify the number of bytes of memory to reserve (and optionally commit)
2998 to be used as heap for this program. The default is 1MB reserved, 4K
3000 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3003 @kindex --image-base
3004 @item --image-base @var{value}
3005 Use @var{value} as the base address of your program or dll. This is
3006 the lowest memory location that will be used when your program or dll
3007 is loaded. To reduce the need to relocate and improve performance of
3008 your dlls, each should have a unique base address and not overlap any
3009 other dlls. The default is 0x400000 for executables, and 0x10000000
3011 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3015 If given, the stdcall suffixes (@@@var{nn}) will be stripped from
3016 symbols before they are exported.
3017 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3019 @kindex --large-address-aware
3020 @item --large-address-aware
3021 If given, the appropriate bit in the ``Characteristics'' field of the COFF
3022 header is set to indicate that this executable supports virtual addresses
3023 greater than 2 gigabytes. This should be used in conjunction with the /3GB
3024 or /USERVA=@var{value} megabytes switch in the ``[operating systems]''
3025 section of the BOOT.INI. Otherwise, this bit has no effect.
3026 [This option is specific to PE targeted ports of the linker]
3028 @kindex --disable-large-address-aware
3029 @item --disable-large-address-aware
3030 Reverts the effect of a previous @samp{--large-address-aware} option.
3031 This is useful if @samp{--large-address-aware} is always set by the compiler
3032 driver (e.g. Cygwin gcc) and the executable does not support virtual
3033 addresses greater than 2 gigabytes.
3034 [This option is specific to PE targeted ports of the linker]
3036 @kindex --major-image-version
3037 @item --major-image-version @var{value}
3038 Sets the major number of the ``image version''. Defaults to 1.
3039 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3041 @kindex --major-os-version
3042 @item --major-os-version @var{value}
3043 Sets the major number of the ``os version''. Defaults to 4.
3044 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3046 @kindex --major-subsystem-version
3047 @item --major-subsystem-version @var{value}
3048 Sets the major number of the ``subsystem version''. Defaults to 4.
3049 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3051 @kindex --minor-image-version
3052 @item --minor-image-version @var{value}
3053 Sets the minor number of the ``image version''. Defaults to 0.
3054 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3056 @kindex --minor-os-version
3057 @item --minor-os-version @var{value}
3058 Sets the minor number of the ``os version''. Defaults to 0.
3059 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3061 @kindex --minor-subsystem-version
3062 @item --minor-subsystem-version @var{value}
3063 Sets the minor number of the ``subsystem version''. Defaults to 0.
3064 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3066 @cindex DEF files, creating
3067 @cindex DLLs, creating
3068 @kindex --output-def
3069 @item --output-def @var{file}
3070 The linker will create the file @var{file} which will contain a DEF
3071 file corresponding to the DLL the linker is generating. This DEF file
3072 (which should be called @code{*.def}) may be used to create an import
3073 library with @code{dlltool} or may be used as a reference to
3074 automatically or implicitly exported symbols.
3075 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3077 @cindex DLLs, creating
3078 @kindex --enable-auto-image-base
3079 @item --enable-auto-image-base
3080 @itemx --enable-auto-image-base=@var{value}
3081 Automatically choose the image base for DLLs, optionally starting with base
3082 @var{value}, unless one is specified using the @code{--image-base} argument.
3083 By using a hash generated from the dllname to create unique image bases
3084 for each DLL, in-memory collisions and relocations which can delay program
3085 execution are avoided.
3086 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3088 @kindex --disable-auto-image-base
3089 @item --disable-auto-image-base
3090 Do not automatically generate a unique image base. If there is no
3091 user-specified image base (@code{--image-base}) then use the platform
3093 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3095 @cindex DLLs, linking to
3096 @kindex --dll-search-prefix
3097 @item --dll-search-prefix @var{string}
3098 When linking dynamically to a dll without an import library,
3099 search for @code{<string><basename>.dll} in preference to
3100 @code{lib<basename>.dll}. This behaviour allows easy distinction
3101 between DLLs built for the various "subplatforms": native, cygwin,
3102 uwin, pw, etc. For instance, cygwin DLLs typically use
3103 @code{--dll-search-prefix=cyg}.
3104 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3106 @kindex --enable-auto-import
3107 @item --enable-auto-import
3108 Do sophisticated linking of @code{_symbol} to @code{__imp__symbol} for
3109 DATA imports from DLLs, thus making it possible to bypass the dllimport
3110 mechanism on the user side and to reference unmangled symbol names.
3111 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3113 The following remarks pertain to the original implementation of the
3114 feature and are obsolete nowadays for Cygwin and MinGW targets.
3116 Note: Use of the 'auto-import' extension will cause the text section
3117 of the image file to be made writable. This does not conform to the
3118 PE-COFF format specification published by Microsoft.
3120 Note - use of the 'auto-import' extension will also cause read only
3121 data which would normally be placed into the .rdata section to be
3122 placed into the .data section instead. This is in order to work
3123 around a problem with consts that is described here:
3124 http://www.cygwin.com/ml/cygwin/2004-09/msg01101.html
3126 Using 'auto-import' generally will 'just work' -- but sometimes you may
3129 "variable '<var>' can't be auto-imported. Please read the
3130 documentation for ld's @code{--enable-auto-import} for details."
3132 This message occurs when some (sub)expression accesses an address
3133 ultimately given by the sum of two constants (Win32 import tables only
3134 allow one). Instances where this may occur include accesses to member
3135 fields of struct variables imported from a DLL, as well as using a
3136 constant index into an array variable imported from a DLL. Any
3137 multiword variable (arrays, structs, long long, etc) may trigger
3138 this error condition. However, regardless of the exact data type
3139 of the offending exported variable, ld will always detect it, issue
3140 the warning, and exit.
3142 There are several ways to address this difficulty, regardless of the
3143 data type of the exported variable:
3145 One way is to use --enable-runtime-pseudo-reloc switch. This leaves the task
3146 of adjusting references in your client code for runtime environment, so
3147 this method works only when runtime environment supports this feature.
3149 A second solution is to force one of the 'constants' to be a variable --
3150 that is, unknown and un-optimizable at compile time. For arrays,
3151 there are two possibilities: a) make the indexee (the array's address)
3152 a variable, or b) make the 'constant' index a variable. Thus:
3155 extern type extern_array[];
3157 @{ volatile type *t=extern_array; t[1] @}
3163 extern type extern_array[];
3165 @{ volatile int t=1; extern_array[t] @}
3168 For structs (and most other multiword data types) the only option
3169 is to make the struct itself (or the long long, or the ...) variable:
3172 extern struct s extern_struct;
3173 extern_struct.field -->
3174 @{ volatile struct s *t=&extern_struct; t->field @}
3180 extern long long extern_ll;
3182 @{ volatile long long * local_ll=&extern_ll; *local_ll @}
3185 A third method of dealing with this difficulty is to abandon
3186 'auto-import' for the offending symbol and mark it with
3187 @code{__declspec(dllimport)}. However, in practice that
3188 requires using compile-time #defines to indicate whether you are
3189 building a DLL, building client code that will link to the DLL, or
3190 merely building/linking to a static library. In making the choice
3191 between the various methods of resolving the 'direct address with
3192 constant offset' problem, you should consider typical real-world usage:
3200 void main(int argc, char **argv)@{
3201 printf("%d\n",arr[1]);
3211 void main(int argc, char **argv)@{
3212 /* This workaround is for win32 and cygwin; do not "optimize" */
3213 volatile int *parr = arr;
3214 printf("%d\n",parr[1]);
3221 /* Note: auto-export is assumed (no __declspec(dllexport)) */
3222 #if (defined(_WIN32) || defined(__CYGWIN__)) && \
3223 !(defined(FOO_BUILD_DLL) || defined(FOO_STATIC))
3224 #define FOO_IMPORT __declspec(dllimport)
3228 extern FOO_IMPORT int arr[];
3231 void main(int argc, char **argv)@{
3232 printf("%d\n",arr[1]);
3236 A fourth way to avoid this problem is to re-code your
3237 library to use a functional interface rather than a data interface
3238 for the offending variables (e.g. set_foo() and get_foo() accessor
3241 @kindex --disable-auto-import
3242 @item --disable-auto-import
3243 Do not attempt to do sophisticated linking of @code{_symbol} to
3244 @code{__imp__symbol} for DATA imports from DLLs.
3245 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3247 @kindex --enable-runtime-pseudo-reloc
3248 @item --enable-runtime-pseudo-reloc
3249 If your code contains expressions described in --enable-auto-import section,
3250 that is, DATA imports from DLL with non-zero offset, this switch will create
3251 a vector of 'runtime pseudo relocations' which can be used by runtime
3252 environment to adjust references to such data in your client code.
3253 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3255 @kindex --disable-runtime-pseudo-reloc
3256 @item --disable-runtime-pseudo-reloc
3257 Do not create pseudo relocations for non-zero offset DATA imports from DLLs.
3258 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3260 @kindex --enable-extra-pe-debug
3261 @item --enable-extra-pe-debug
3262 Show additional debug info related to auto-import symbol thunking.
3263 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3265 @kindex --section-alignment
3266 @item --section-alignment
3267 Sets the section alignment. Sections in memory will always begin at
3268 addresses which are a multiple of this number. Defaults to 0x1000.
3269 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3273 @item --stack @var{reserve}
3274 @itemx --stack @var{reserve},@var{commit}
3275 Specify the number of bytes of memory to reserve (and optionally commit)
3276 to be used as stack for this program. The default is 2MB reserved, 4K
3278 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3281 @item --subsystem @var{which}
3282 @itemx --subsystem @var{which}:@var{major}
3283 @itemx --subsystem @var{which}:@var{major}.@var{minor}
3284 Specifies the subsystem under which your program will execute. The
3285 legal values for @var{which} are @code{native}, @code{windows},
3286 @code{console}, @code{posix}, and @code{xbox}. You may optionally set
3287 the subsystem version also. Numeric values are also accepted for
3289 [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
3291 The following options set flags in the @code{DllCharacteristics} field
3292 of the PE file header:
3293 [These options are specific to PE targeted ports of the linker]
3295 @kindex --high-entropy-va
3296 @item --high-entropy-va
3297 @itemx --disable-high-entropy-va
3298 Image is compatible with 64-bit address space layout randomization
3299 (ASLR). This option is enabled by default for 64-bit PE images.
3301 This option also implies @option{--dynamicbase} and
3302 @option{--enable-reloc-section}.
3304 @kindex --dynamicbase
3306 @itemx --disable-dynamicbase
3307 The image base address may be relocated using address space layout
3308 randomization (ASLR). This feature was introduced with MS Windows
3309 Vista for i386 PE targets. This option is enabled by default but
3310 can be disabled via the @option{--disable-dynamicbase} option.
3311 This option also implies @option{--enable-reloc-section}.
3313 @kindex --forceinteg
3315 @itemx --disable-forceinteg
3316 Code integrity checks are enforced. This option is disabled by
3321 @item --disable-nxcompat
3322 The image is compatible with the Data Execution Prevention.
3323 This feature was introduced with MS Windows XP SP2 for i386 PE
3324 targets. The option is enabled by default.
3326 @kindex --no-isolation
3327 @item --no-isolation
3328 @itemx --disable-no-isolation
3329 Although the image understands isolation, do not isolate the image.
3330 This option is disabled by default.
3334 @itemx --disable-no-seh
3335 The image does not use SEH. No SE handler may be called from
3336 this image. This option is disabled by default.
3340 @itemx --disable-no-bind
3341 Do not bind this image. This option is disabled by default.
3345 @itemx --disable-wdmdriver
3346 The driver uses the MS Windows Driver Model. This option is disabled
3351 @itemx --disable-tsaware
3352 The image is Terminal Server aware. This option is disabled by
3355 @kindex --insert-timestamp
3356 @item --insert-timestamp
3357 @itemx --no-insert-timestamp
3358 Insert a real timestamp into the image. This is the default behaviour
3359 as it matches legacy code and it means that the image will work with
3360 other, proprietary tools. The problem with this default is that it
3361 will result in slightly different images being produced each time the
3362 same sources are linked. The option @option{--no-insert-timestamp}
3363 can be used to insert a zero value for the timestamp, this ensuring
3364 that binaries produced from identical sources will compare
3367 @kindex --enable-reloc-section
3368 @item --enable-reloc-section
3369 @itemx --disable-reloc-section
3370 Create the base relocation table, which is necessary if the image
3371 is loaded at a different image base than specified in the PE header.
3372 This option is enabled by default.
3378 @subsection Options specific to C6X uClinux targets
3380 @c man begin OPTIONS
3382 The C6X uClinux target uses a binary format called DSBT to support shared
3383 libraries. Each shared library in the system needs to have a unique index;
3384 all executables use an index of 0.
3389 @item --dsbt-size @var{size}
3390 This option sets the number of entries in the DSBT of the current executable
3391 or shared library to @var{size}. The default is to create a table with 64
3394 @kindex --dsbt-index
3395 @item --dsbt-index @var{index}
3396 This option sets the DSBT index of the current executable or shared library
3397 to @var{index}. The default is 0, which is appropriate for generating
3398 executables. If a shared library is generated with a DSBT index of 0, the
3399 @code{R_C6000_DSBT_INDEX} relocs are copied into the output file.
3401 @kindex --no-merge-exidx-entries
3402 The @samp{--no-merge-exidx-entries} switch disables the merging of adjacent
3403 exidx entries in frame unwind info.
3411 @subsection Options specific to C-SKY targets
3413 @c man begin OPTIONS
3417 @kindex --branch-stub on C-SKY
3419 This option enables linker branch relaxation by inserting branch stub
3420 sections when needed to extend the range of branches. This option is
3421 usually not required since C-SKY supports branch and call instructions that
3422 can access the full memory range and branch relaxation is normally handled by
3423 the compiler or assembler.
3425 @kindex --stub-group-size on C-SKY
3426 @item --stub-group-size=@var{N}
3427 This option allows finer control of linker branch stub creation.
3428 It sets the maximum size of a group of input sections that can
3429 be handled by one stub section. A negative value of @var{N} locates
3430 stub sections after their branches, while a positive value allows stub
3431 sections to appear either before or after the branches. Values of
3432 @samp{1} or @samp{-1} indicate that the
3433 linker should choose suitable defaults.
3441 @subsection Options specific to Motorola 68HC11 and 68HC12 targets
3443 @c man begin OPTIONS
3445 The 68HC11 and 68HC12 linkers support specific options to control the
3446 memory bank switching mapping and trampoline code generation.
3450 @kindex --no-trampoline
3451 @item --no-trampoline
3452 This option disables the generation of trampoline. By default a trampoline
3453 is generated for each far function which is called using a @code{jsr}
3454 instruction (this happens when a pointer to a far function is taken).
3456 @kindex --bank-window
3457 @item --bank-window @var{name}
3458 This option indicates to the linker the name of the memory region in
3459 the @samp{MEMORY} specification that describes the memory bank window.
3460 The definition of such region is then used by the linker to compute
3461 paging and addresses within the memory window.
3469 @subsection Options specific to Motorola 68K target
3471 @c man begin OPTIONS
3473 The following options are supported to control handling of GOT generation
3474 when linking for 68K targets.
3479 @item --got=@var{type}
3480 This option tells the linker which GOT generation scheme to use.
3481 @var{type} should be one of @samp{single}, @samp{negative},
3482 @samp{multigot} or @samp{target}. For more information refer to the
3483 Info entry for @file{ld}.
3491 @subsection Options specific to MIPS targets
3493 @c man begin OPTIONS
3495 The following options are supported to control microMIPS instruction
3496 generation and branch relocation checks for ISA mode transitions when
3497 linking for MIPS targets.
3505 These options control the choice of microMIPS instructions used in code
3506 generated by the linker, such as that in the PLT or lazy binding stubs,
3507 or in relaxation. If @samp{--insn32} is used, then the linker only uses
3508 32-bit instruction encodings. By default or if @samp{--no-insn32} is
3509 used, all instruction encodings are used, including 16-bit ones where
3512 @kindex --ignore-branch-isa
3513 @item --ignore-branch-isa
3514 @kindex --no-ignore-branch-isa
3515 @itemx --no-ignore-branch-isa
3516 These options control branch relocation checks for invalid ISA mode
3517 transitions. If @samp{--ignore-branch-isa} is used, then the linker
3518 accepts any branch relocations and any ISA mode transition required
3519 is lost in relocation calculation, except for some cases of @code{BAL}
3520 instructions which meet relaxation conditions and are converted to
3521 equivalent @code{JALX} instructions as the associated relocation is
3522 calculated. By default or if @samp{--no-ignore-branch-isa} is used
3523 a check is made causing the loss of an ISA mode transition to produce
3526 @kindex --compact-branches
3527 @item --compact-branches
3528 @kindex --no-compact-branches
3529 @itemx --no-compact-branches
3530 These options control the generation of compact instructions by the linker
3531 in the PLT entries for MIPS R6.
3540 @subsection Options specific to PDP11 targets
3542 @c man begin OPTIONS
3544 For the pdp11-aout target, three variants of the output format can be
3545 produced as selected by the following options. The default variant
3546 for pdp11-aout is the @samp{--omagic} option, whereas for other
3547 targets @samp{--nmagic} is the default. The @samp{--imagic} option is
3548 defined only for the pdp11-aout target, while the others are described
3549 here as they apply to the pdp11-aout target.
3558 Mark the output as @code{OMAGIC} (0407) in the @file{a.out} header to
3559 indicate that the text segment is not to be write-protected and
3560 shared. Since the text and data sections are both readable and
3561 writable, the data section is allocated immediately contiguous after
3562 the text segment. This is the oldest format for PDP11 executable
3563 programs and is the default for @command{ld} on PDP11 Unix systems
3564 from the beginning through 2.11BSD.
3571 Mark the output as @code{NMAGIC} (0410) in the @file{a.out} header to
3572 indicate that when the output file is executed, the text portion will
3573 be read-only and shareable among all processes executing the same
3574 file. This involves moving the data areas up to the first possible 8K
3575 byte page boundary following the end of the text. This option creates
3576 a @emph{pure executable} format.
3583 Mark the output as @code{IMAGIC} (0411) in the @file{a.out} header to
3584 indicate that when the output file is executed, the program text and
3585 data areas will be loaded into separate address spaces using the split
3586 instruction and data space feature of the memory management unit in
3587 larger models of the PDP11. This doubles the address space available
3588 to the program. The text segment is again pure, write-protected, and
3589 shareable. The only difference in the output format between this
3590 option and the others, besides the magic number, is that both the text
3591 and data sections start at location 0. The @samp{-z} option selected
3592 this format in 2.11BSD. This option creates a @emph{separate
3598 Equivalent to @samp{--nmagic} for pdp11-aout.
3607 @section Environment Variables
3609 @c man begin ENVIRONMENT
3611 You can change the behaviour of @command{ld} with the environment variables
3612 @ifclear SingleFormat
3615 @code{LDEMULATION} and @code{COLLECT_NO_DEMANGLE}.
3617 @ifclear SingleFormat
3619 @cindex default input format
3620 @code{GNUTARGET} determines the input-file object format if you don't
3621 use @samp{-b} (or its synonym @samp{--format}). Its value should be one
3622 of the BFD names for an input format (@pxref{BFD}). If there is no
3623 @code{GNUTARGET} in the environment, @command{ld} uses the natural format
3624 of the target. If @code{GNUTARGET} is set to @code{default} then BFD
3625 attempts to discover the input format by examining binary input files;
3626 this method often succeeds, but there are potential ambiguities, since
3627 there is no method of ensuring that the magic number used to specify
3628 object-file formats is unique. However, the configuration procedure for
3629 BFD on each system places the conventional format for that system first
3630 in the search-list, so ambiguities are resolved in favor of convention.
3634 @cindex default emulation
3635 @cindex emulation, default
3636 @code{LDEMULATION} determines the default emulation if you don't use the
3637 @samp{-m} option. The emulation can affect various aspects of linker
3638 behaviour, particularly the default linker script. You can list the
3639 available emulations with the @samp{--verbose} or @samp{-V} options. If
3640 the @samp{-m} option is not used, and the @code{LDEMULATION} environment
3641 variable is not defined, the default emulation depends upon how the
3642 linker was configured.
3644 @kindex COLLECT_NO_DEMANGLE
3645 @cindex demangling, default
3646 Normally, the linker will default to demangling symbols. However, if
3647 @code{COLLECT_NO_DEMANGLE} is set in the environment, then it will
3648 default to not demangling symbols. This environment variable is used in
3649 a similar fashion by the @code{gcc} linker wrapper program. The default
3650 may be overridden by the @samp{--demangle} and @samp{--no-demangle}
3657 @chapter Linker Scripts
3660 @cindex linker scripts
3661 @cindex command files
3662 Every link is controlled by a @dfn{linker script}. This script is
3663 written in the linker command language.
3665 The main purpose of the linker script is to describe how the sections in
3666 the input files should be mapped into the output file, and to control
3667 the memory layout of the output file. Most linker scripts do nothing
3668 more than this. However, when necessary, the linker script can also
3669 direct the linker to perform many other operations, using the commands
3672 The linker always uses a linker script. If you do not supply one
3673 yourself, the linker will use a default script that is compiled into the
3674 linker executable. You can use the @samp{--verbose} command-line option
3675 to display the default linker script. Certain command-line options,
3676 such as @samp{-r} or @samp{-N}, will affect the default linker script.
3678 You may supply your own linker script by using the @samp{-T} command
3679 line option. When you do this, your linker script will replace the
3680 default linker script.
3682 You may also use linker scripts implicitly by naming them as input files
3683 to the linker, as though they were files to be linked. @xref{Implicit
3687 * Basic Script Concepts:: Basic Linker Script Concepts
3688 * Script Format:: Linker Script Format
3689 * Simple Example:: Simple Linker Script Example
3690 * Simple Commands:: Simple Linker Script Commands
3691 * Assignments:: Assigning Values to Symbols
3692 * SECTIONS:: SECTIONS Command
3693 * MEMORY:: MEMORY Command
3694 * PHDRS:: PHDRS Command
3695 * VERSION:: VERSION Command
3696 * Expressions:: Expressions in Linker Scripts
3697 * Implicit Linker Scripts:: Implicit Linker Scripts
3700 @node Basic Script Concepts
3701 @section Basic Linker Script Concepts
3702 @cindex linker script concepts
3703 We need to define some basic concepts and vocabulary in order to
3704 describe the linker script language.
3706 The linker combines input files into a single output file. The output
3707 file and each input file are in a special data format known as an
3708 @dfn{object file format}. Each file is called an @dfn{object file}.
3709 The output file is often called an @dfn{executable}, but for our
3710 purposes we will also call it an object file. Each object file has,
3711 among other things, a list of @dfn{sections}. We sometimes refer to a
3712 section in an input file as an @dfn{input section}; similarly, a section
3713 in the output file is an @dfn{output section}.
3715 Each section in an object file has a name and a size. Most sections
3716 also have an associated block of data, known as the @dfn{section
3717 contents}. A section may be marked as @dfn{loadable}, which means that
3718 the contents should be loaded into memory when the output file is run.
3719 A section with no contents may be @dfn{allocatable}, which means that an
3720 area in memory should be set aside, but nothing in particular should be
3721 loaded there (in some cases this memory must be zeroed out). A section
3722 which is neither loadable nor allocatable typically contains some sort
3723 of debugging information.
3725 Every loadable or allocatable output section has two addresses. The
3726 first is the @dfn{VMA}, or virtual memory address. This is the address
3727 the section will have when the output file is run. The second is the
3728 @dfn{LMA}, or load memory address. This is the address at which the
3729 section will be loaded. In most cases the two addresses will be the
3730 same. An example of when they might be different is when a data section
3731 is loaded into ROM, and then copied into RAM when the program starts up
3732 (this technique is often used to initialize global variables in a ROM
3733 based system). In this case the ROM address would be the LMA, and the
3734 RAM address would be the VMA.
3736 You can see the sections in an object file by using the @code{objdump}
3737 program with the @samp{-h} option.
3739 Every object file also has a list of @dfn{symbols}, known as the
3740 @dfn{symbol table}. A symbol may be defined or undefined. Each symbol
3741 has a name, and each defined symbol has an address, among other
3742 information. If you compile a C or C++ program into an object file, you
3743 will get a defined symbol for every defined function and global or
3744 static variable. Every undefined function or global variable which is
3745 referenced in the input file will become an undefined symbol.
3747 You can see the symbols in an object file by using the @code{nm}
3748 program, or by using the @code{objdump} program with the @samp{-t}
3752 @section Linker Script Format
3753 @cindex linker script format
3754 Linker scripts are text files.
3756 You write a linker script as a series of commands. Each command is
3757 either a keyword, possibly followed by arguments, or an assignment to a
3758 symbol. You may separate commands using semicolons. Whitespace is
3761 Strings such as file or format names can normally be entered directly.
3762 If the file name contains a character such as a comma which would
3763 otherwise serve to separate file names, you may put the file name in
3764 double quotes. There is no way to use a double quote character in a
3767 You may include comments in linker scripts just as in C, delimited by
3768 @samp{/*} and @samp{*/}. As in C, comments are syntactically equivalent
3771 @node Simple Example
3772 @section Simple Linker Script Example
3773 @cindex linker script example
3774 @cindex example of linker script
3775 Many linker scripts are fairly simple.
3777 The simplest possible linker script has just one command:
3778 @samp{SECTIONS}. You use the @samp{SECTIONS} command to describe the
3779 memory layout of the output file.
3781 The @samp{SECTIONS} command is a powerful command. Here we will
3782 describe a simple use of it. Let's assume your program consists only of
3783 code, initialized data, and uninitialized data. These will be in the
3784 @samp{.text}, @samp{.data}, and @samp{.bss} sections, respectively.
3785 Let's assume further that these are the only sections which appear in
3788 For this example, let's say that the code should be loaded at address
3789 0x10000, and that the data should start at address 0x8000000. Here is a
3790 linker script which will do that:
3795 .text : @{ *(.text) @}
3797 .data : @{ *(.data) @}
3798 .bss : @{ *(.bss) @}
3802 You write the @samp{SECTIONS} command as the keyword @samp{SECTIONS},
3803 followed by a series of symbol assignments and output section
3804 descriptions enclosed in curly braces.
3806 The first line inside the @samp{SECTIONS} command of the above example
3807 sets the value of the special symbol @samp{.}, which is the location
3808 counter. If you do not specify the address of an output section in some
3809 other way (other ways are described later), the address is set from the
3810 current value of the location counter. The location counter is then
3811 incremented by the size of the output section. At the start of the
3812 @samp{SECTIONS} command, the location counter has the value @samp{0}.
3814 The second line defines an output section, @samp{.text}. The colon is
3815 required syntax which may be ignored for now. Within the curly braces
3816 after the output section name, you list the names of the input sections
3817 which should be placed into this output section. The @samp{*} is a
3818 wildcard which matches any file name. The expression @samp{*(.text)}
3819 means all @samp{.text} input sections in all input files.
3821 Since the location counter is @samp{0x10000} when the output section
3822 @samp{.text} is defined, the linker will set the address of the
3823 @samp{.text} section in the output file to be @samp{0x10000}.
3825 The remaining lines define the @samp{.data} and @samp{.bss} sections in
3826 the output file. The linker will place the @samp{.data} output section
3827 at address @samp{0x8000000}. After the linker places the @samp{.data}
3828 output section, the value of the location counter will be
3829 @samp{0x8000000} plus the size of the @samp{.data} output section. The
3830 effect is that the linker will place the @samp{.bss} output section
3831 immediately after the @samp{.data} output section in memory.
3833 The linker will ensure that each output section has the required
3834 alignment, by increasing the location counter if necessary. In this
3835 example, the specified addresses for the @samp{.text} and @samp{.data}
3836 sections will probably satisfy any alignment constraints, but the linker
3837 may have to create a small gap between the @samp{.data} and @samp{.bss}
3840 That's it! That's a simple and complete linker script.
3842 @node Simple Commands
3843 @section Simple Linker Script Commands
3844 @cindex linker script simple commands
3845 In this section we describe the simple linker script commands.
3848 * Entry Point:: Setting the entry point
3849 * File Commands:: Commands dealing with files
3850 @ifclear SingleFormat
3851 * Format Commands:: Commands dealing with object file formats
3854 * REGION_ALIAS:: Assign alias names to memory regions
3855 * Miscellaneous Commands:: Other linker script commands
3859 @subsection Setting the Entry Point
3860 @kindex ENTRY(@var{symbol})
3861 @cindex start of execution
3862 @cindex first instruction
3864 The first instruction to execute in a program is called the @dfn{entry
3865 point}. You can use the @code{ENTRY} linker script command to set the
3866 entry point. The argument is a symbol name:
3871 There are several ways to set the entry point. The linker will set the
3872 entry point by trying each of the following methods in order, and
3873 stopping when one of them succeeds:
3876 the @samp{-e} @var{entry} command-line option;
3878 the @code{ENTRY(@var{symbol})} command in a linker script;
3880 the value of a target-specific symbol, if it is defined; For many
3881 targets this is @code{start}, but PE- and BeOS-based systems for example
3882 check a list of possible entry symbols, matching the first one found.
3884 the address of the first byte of the @samp{.text} section, if present;
3886 The address @code{0}.
3890 @subsection Commands Dealing with Files
3891 @cindex linker script file commands
3892 Several linker script commands deal with files.
3895 @item INCLUDE @var{filename}
3896 @kindex INCLUDE @var{filename}
3897 @cindex including a linker script
3898 Include the linker script @var{filename} at this point. The file will
3899 be searched for in the current directory, and in any directory specified
3900 with the @option{-L} option. You can nest calls to @code{INCLUDE} up to
3903 You can place @code{INCLUDE} directives at the top level, in @code{MEMORY} or
3904 @code{SECTIONS} commands, or in output section descriptions.
3906 @item INPUT(@var{file}, @var{file}, @dots{})
3907 @itemx INPUT(@var{file} @var{file} @dots{})
3908 @kindex INPUT(@var{files})
3909 @cindex input files in linker scripts
3910 @cindex input object files in linker scripts
3911 @cindex linker script input object files
3912 The @code{INPUT} command directs the linker to include the named files
3913 in the link, as though they were named on the command line.
3915 For example, if you always want to include @file{subr.o} any time you do
3916 a link, but you can't be bothered to put it on every link command line,
3917 then you can put @samp{INPUT (subr.o)} in your linker script.
3919 In fact, if you like, you can list all of your input files in the linker
3920 script, and then invoke the linker with nothing but a @samp{-T} option.
3922 In case a @dfn{sysroot prefix} is configured, and the filename starts
3923 with the @samp{/} character, and the script being processed was
3924 located inside the @dfn{sysroot prefix}, the filename will be looked
3925 for in the @dfn{sysroot prefix}. The @dfn{sysroot prefix} can also be forced by specifying
3926 @code{=} as the first character in the filename path, or prefixing the
3927 filename path with @code{$SYSROOT}. See also the description of
3928 @samp{-L} in @ref{Options,,Command-line Options}.
3930 If a @dfn{sysroot prefix} is not used then the linker will try to open
3931 the file in the directory containing the linker script. If it is not
3932 found the linker will then search the current directory. If it is still
3933 not found the linker will search through the archive library search
3936 If you use @samp{INPUT (-l@var{file})}, @command{ld} will transform the
3937 name to @code{lib@var{file}.a}, as with the command-line argument
3940 When you use the @code{INPUT} command in an implicit linker script, the
3941 files will be included in the link at the point at which the linker
3942 script file is included. This can affect archive searching.
3944 @item GROUP(@var{file}, @var{file}, @dots{})
3945 @itemx GROUP(@var{file} @var{file} @dots{})
3946 @kindex GROUP(@var{files})
3947 @cindex grouping input files
3948 The @code{GROUP} command is like @code{INPUT}, except that the named
3949 files should all be archives, and they are searched repeatedly until no
3950 new undefined references are created. See the description of @samp{-(}
3951 in @ref{Options,,Command-line Options}.
3953 @item AS_NEEDED(@var{file}, @var{file}, @dots{})
3954 @itemx AS_NEEDED(@var{file} @var{file} @dots{})
3955 @kindex AS_NEEDED(@var{files})
3956 This construct can appear only inside of the @code{INPUT} or @code{GROUP}
3957 commands, among other filenames. The files listed will be handled
3958 as if they appear directly in the @code{INPUT} or @code{GROUP} commands,
3959 with the exception of ELF shared libraries, that will be added only
3960 when they are actually needed. This construct essentially enables
3961 @option{--as-needed} option for all the files listed inside of it
3962 and restores previous @option{--as-needed} resp. @option{--no-as-needed}
3965 @item OUTPUT(@var{filename})
3966 @kindex OUTPUT(@var{filename})
3967 @cindex output file name in linker script
3968 The @code{OUTPUT} command names the output file. Using
3969 @code{OUTPUT(@var{filename})} in the linker script is exactly like using
3970 @samp{-o @var{filename}} on the command line (@pxref{Options,,Command
3971 Line Options}). If both are used, the command-line option takes
3974 You can use the @code{OUTPUT} command to define a default name for the
3975 output file other than the usual default of @file{a.out}.
3977 @item SEARCH_DIR(@var{path})
3978 @kindex SEARCH_DIR(@var{path})
3979 @cindex library search path in linker script
3980 @cindex archive search path in linker script
3981 @cindex search path in linker script
3982 The @code{SEARCH_DIR} command adds @var{path} to the list of paths where
3983 @command{ld} looks for archive libraries. Using
3984 @code{SEARCH_DIR(@var{path})} is exactly like using @samp{-L @var{path}}
3985 on the command line (@pxref{Options,,Command-line Options}). If both
3986 are used, then the linker will search both paths. Paths specified using
3987 the command-line option are searched first.
3989 @item STARTUP(@var{filename})
3990 @kindex STARTUP(@var{filename})
3991 @cindex first input file
3992 The @code{STARTUP} command is just like the @code{INPUT} command, except
3993 that @var{filename} will become the first input file to be linked, as
3994 though it were specified first on the command line. This may be useful
3995 when using a system in which the entry point is always the start of the
3999 @ifclear SingleFormat
4000 @node Format Commands
4001 @subsection Commands Dealing with Object File Formats
4002 A couple of linker script commands deal with object file formats.
4005 @item OUTPUT_FORMAT(@var{bfdname})
4006 @itemx OUTPUT_FORMAT(@var{default}, @var{big}, @var{little})
4007 @kindex OUTPUT_FORMAT(@var{bfdname})
4008 @cindex output file format in linker script
4009 The @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT} command names the BFD format to use for the
4010 output file (@pxref{BFD}). Using @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT(@var{bfdname})} is
4011 exactly like using @samp{--oformat @var{bfdname}} on the command line
4012 (@pxref{Options,,Command-line Options}). If both are used, the command
4013 line option takes precedence.
4015 You can use @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT} with three arguments to use different
4016 formats based on the @samp{-EB} and @samp{-EL} command-line options.
4017 This permits the linker script to set the output format based on the
4020 If neither @samp{-EB} nor @samp{-EL} are used, then the output format
4021 will be the first argument, @var{default}. If @samp{-EB} is used, the
4022 output format will be the second argument, @var{big}. If @samp{-EL} is
4023 used, the output format will be the third argument, @var{little}.
4025 For example, the default linker script for the MIPS ELF target uses this
4028 OUTPUT_FORMAT(elf32-bigmips, elf32-bigmips, elf32-littlemips)
4030 This says that the default format for the output file is
4031 @samp{elf32-bigmips}, but if the user uses the @samp{-EL} command-line
4032 option, the output file will be created in the @samp{elf32-littlemips}
4035 @item TARGET(@var{bfdname})
4036 @kindex TARGET(@var{bfdname})
4037 @cindex input file format in linker script
4038 The @code{TARGET} command names the BFD format to use when reading input
4039 files. It affects subsequent @code{INPUT} and @code{GROUP} commands.
4040 This command is like using @samp{-b @var{bfdname}} on the command line
4041 (@pxref{Options,,Command-line Options}). If the @code{TARGET} command
4042 is used but @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT} is not, then the last @code{TARGET}
4043 command is also used to set the format for the output file. @xref{BFD}.
4048 @subsection Assign alias names to memory regions
4049 @kindex REGION_ALIAS(@var{alias}, @var{region})
4050 @cindex region alias
4051 @cindex region names
4053 Alias names can be added to existing memory regions created with the
4054 @ref{MEMORY} command. Each name corresponds to at most one memory region.
4057 REGION_ALIAS(@var{alias}, @var{region})
4060 The @code{REGION_ALIAS} function creates an alias name @var{alias} for the
4061 memory region @var{region}. This allows a flexible mapping of output sections
4062 to memory regions. An example follows.
4064 Suppose we have an application for embedded systems which come with various
4065 memory storage devices. All have a general purpose, volatile memory @code{RAM}
4066 that allows code execution or data storage. Some may have a read-only,
4067 non-volatile memory @code{ROM} that allows code execution and read-only data
4068 access. The last variant is a read-only, non-volatile memory @code{ROM2} with
4069 read-only data access and no code execution capability. We have four output
4074 @code{.text} program code;
4076 @code{.rodata} read-only data;
4078 @code{.data} read-write initialized data;
4080 @code{.bss} read-write zero initialized data.
4083 The goal is to provide a linker command file that contains a system independent
4084 part defining the output sections and a system dependent part mapping the
4085 output sections to the memory regions available on the system. Our embedded
4086 systems come with three different memory setups @code{A}, @code{B} and
4088 @multitable @columnfractions .25 .25 .25 .25
4089 @item Section @tab Variant A @tab Variant B @tab Variant C
4090 @item .text @tab RAM @tab ROM @tab ROM
4091 @item .rodata @tab RAM @tab ROM @tab ROM2
4092 @item .data @tab RAM @tab RAM/ROM @tab RAM/ROM2
4093 @item .bss @tab RAM @tab RAM @tab RAM
4095 The notation @code{RAM/ROM} or @code{RAM/ROM2} means that this section is
4096 loaded into region @code{ROM} or @code{ROM2} respectively. Please note that
4097 the load address of the @code{.data} section starts in all three variants at
4098 the end of the @code{.rodata} section.
4100 The base linker script that deals with the output sections follows. It
4101 includes the system dependent @code{linkcmds.memory} file that describes the
4104 INCLUDE linkcmds.memory
4117 .data : AT (rodata_end)
4122 data_size = SIZEOF(.data);
4123 data_load_start = LOADADDR(.data);
4131 Now we need three different @code{linkcmds.memory} files to define memory
4132 regions and alias names. The content of @code{linkcmds.memory} for the three
4133 variants @code{A}, @code{B} and @code{C}:
4136 Here everything goes into the @code{RAM}.
4140 RAM : ORIGIN = 0, LENGTH = 4M
4143 REGION_ALIAS("REGION_TEXT", RAM);
4144 REGION_ALIAS("REGION_RODATA", RAM);
4145 REGION_ALIAS("REGION_DATA", RAM);
4146 REGION_ALIAS("REGION_BSS", RAM);
4149 Program code and read-only data go into the @code{ROM}. Read-write data goes
4150 into the @code{RAM}. An image of the initialized data is loaded into the
4151 @code{ROM} and will be copied during system start into the @code{RAM}.
4155 ROM : ORIGIN = 0, LENGTH = 3M
4156 RAM : ORIGIN = 0x10000000, LENGTH = 1M
4159 REGION_ALIAS("REGION_TEXT", ROM);
4160 REGION_ALIAS("REGION_RODATA", ROM);
4161 REGION_ALIAS("REGION_DATA", RAM);
4162 REGION_ALIAS("REGION_BSS", RAM);
4165 Program code goes into the @code{ROM}. Read-only data goes into the
4166 @code{ROM2}. Read-write data goes into the @code{RAM}. An image of the
4167 initialized data is loaded into the @code{ROM2} and will be copied during
4168 system start into the @code{RAM}.
4172 ROM : ORIGIN = 0, LENGTH = 2M
4173 ROM2 : ORIGIN = 0x10000000, LENGTH = 1M
4174 RAM : ORIGIN = 0x20000000, LENGTH = 1M
4177 REGION_ALIAS("REGION_TEXT", ROM);
4178 REGION_ALIAS("REGION_RODATA", ROM2);
4179 REGION_ALIAS("REGION_DATA", RAM);
4180 REGION_ALIAS("REGION_BSS", RAM);
4184 It is possible to write a common system initialization routine to copy the
4185 @code{.data} section from @code{ROM} or @code{ROM2} into the @code{RAM} if
4190 extern char data_start [];
4191 extern char data_size [];
4192 extern char data_load_start [];
4194 void copy_data(void)
4196 if (data_start != data_load_start)
4198 memcpy(data_start, data_load_start, (size_t) data_size);
4203 @node Miscellaneous Commands
4204 @subsection Other Linker Script Commands
4205 There are a few other linker scripts commands.
4208 @item ASSERT(@var{exp}, @var{message})
4210 @cindex assertion in linker script
4211 Ensure that @var{exp} is non-zero. If it is zero, then exit the linker
4212 with an error code, and print @var{message}.
4214 Note that assertions are checked before the final stages of linking
4215 take place. This means that expressions involving symbols PROVIDEd
4216 inside section definitions will fail if the user has not set values
4217 for those symbols. The only exception to this rule is PROVIDEd
4218 symbols that just reference dot. Thus an assertion like this:
4223 PROVIDE (__stack = .);
4224 PROVIDE (__stack_size = 0x100);
4225 ASSERT ((__stack > (_end + __stack_size)), "Error: No room left for the stack");
4229 will fail if @code{__stack_size} is not defined elsewhere. Symbols
4230 PROVIDEd outside of section definitions are evaluated earlier, so they
4231 can be used inside ASSERTions. Thus:
4234 PROVIDE (__stack_size = 0x100);
4237 PROVIDE (__stack = .);
4238 ASSERT ((__stack > (_end + __stack_size)), "Error: No room left for the stack");
4244 @item EXTERN(@var{symbol} @var{symbol} @dots{})
4246 @cindex undefined symbol in linker script
4247 Force @var{symbol} to be entered in the output file as an undefined
4248 symbol. Doing this may, for example, trigger linking of additional
4249 modules from standard libraries. You may list several @var{symbol}s for
4250 each @code{EXTERN}, and you may use @code{EXTERN} multiple times. This
4251 command has the same effect as the @samp{-u} command-line option.
4253 @item FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION
4254 @kindex FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION
4255 @cindex common allocation in linker script
4256 This command has the same effect as the @samp{-d} command-line option:
4257 to make @command{ld} assign space to common symbols even if a relocatable
4258 output file is specified (@samp{-r}).
4260 @item INHIBIT_COMMON_ALLOCATION
4261 @kindex INHIBIT_COMMON_ALLOCATION
4262 @cindex common allocation in linker script
4263 This command has the same effect as the @samp{--no-define-common}
4264 command-line option: to make @code{ld} omit the assignment of addresses
4265 to common symbols even for a non-relocatable output file.
4267 @item FORCE_GROUP_ALLOCATION
4268 @kindex FORCE_GROUP_ALLOCATION
4269 @cindex group allocation in linker script
4270 @cindex section groups
4272 This command has the same effect as the
4273 @samp{--force-group-allocation} command-line option: to make
4274 @command{ld} place section group members like normal input sections,
4275 and to delete the section groups even if a relocatable output file is
4276 specified (@samp{-r}).
4278 @item INSERT [ AFTER | BEFORE ] @var{output_section}
4280 @cindex insert user script into default script
4281 This command is typically used in a script specified by @samp{-T} to
4282 augment the default @code{SECTIONS} with, for example, overlays. It
4283 inserts all prior linker script statements after (or before)
4284 @var{output_section}, and also causes @samp{-T} to not override the
4285 default linker script. The exact insertion point is as for orphan
4286 sections. @xref{Location Counter}. The insertion happens after the
4287 linker has mapped input sections to output sections. Prior to the
4288 insertion, since @samp{-T} scripts are parsed before the default
4289 linker script, statements in the @samp{-T} script occur before the
4290 default linker script statements in the internal linker representation
4291 of the script. In particular, input section assignments will be made
4292 to @samp{-T} output sections before those in the default script. Here
4293 is an example of how a @samp{-T} script using @code{INSERT} might look:
4300 .ov1 @{ ov1*(.text) @}
4301 .ov2 @{ ov2*(.text) @}
4307 @item NOCROSSREFS(@var{section} @var{section} @dots{})
4308 @kindex NOCROSSREFS(@var{sections})
4309 @cindex cross references
4310 This command may be used to tell @command{ld} to issue an error about any
4311 references among certain output sections.
4313 In certain types of programs, particularly on embedded systems when
4314 using overlays, when one section is loaded into memory, another section
4315 will not be. Any direct references between the two sections would be
4316 errors. For example, it would be an error if code in one section called
4317 a function defined in the other section.
4319 The @code{NOCROSSREFS} command takes a list of output section names. If
4320 @command{ld} detects any cross references between the sections, it reports
4321 an error and returns a non-zero exit status. Note that the
4322 @code{NOCROSSREFS} command uses output section names, not input section
4325 @item NOCROSSREFS_TO(@var{tosection} @var{fromsection} @dots{})
4326 @kindex NOCROSSREFS_TO(@var{tosection} @var{fromsections})
4327 @cindex cross references
4328 This command may be used to tell @command{ld} to issue an error about any
4329 references to one section from a list of other sections.
4331 The @code{NOCROSSREFS} command is useful when ensuring that two or more
4332 output sections are entirely independent but there are situations where
4333 a one-way dependency is needed. For example, in a multi-core application
4334 there may be shared code that can be called from each core but for safety
4335 must never call back.
4337 The @code{NOCROSSREFS_TO} command takes a list of output section names.
4338 The first section can not be referenced from any of the other sections.
4339 If @command{ld} detects any references to the first section from any of
4340 the other sections, it reports an error and returns a non-zero exit
4341 status. Note that the @code{NOCROSSREFS_TO} command uses output section
4342 names, not input section names.
4344 @ifclear SingleFormat
4345 @item OUTPUT_ARCH(@var{bfdarch})
4346 @kindex OUTPUT_ARCH(@var{bfdarch})
4347 @cindex machine architecture
4348 @cindex architecture
4349 Specify a particular output machine architecture. The argument is one
4350 of the names used by the BFD library (@pxref{BFD}). You can see the
4351 architecture of an object file by using the @code{objdump} program with
4352 the @samp{-f} option.
4355 @item LD_FEATURE(@var{string})
4356 @kindex LD_FEATURE(@var{string})
4357 This command may be used to modify @command{ld} behavior. If
4358 @var{string} is @code{"SANE_EXPR"} then absolute symbols and numbers
4359 in a script are simply treated as numbers everywhere.
4360 @xref{Expression Section}.
4364 @section Assigning Values to Symbols
4365 @cindex assignment in scripts
4366 @cindex symbol definition, scripts
4367 @cindex variables, defining
4368 You may assign a value to a symbol in a linker script. This will define
4369 the symbol and place it into the symbol table with a global scope.
4372 * Simple Assignments:: Simple Assignments
4375 * PROVIDE_HIDDEN:: PROVIDE_HIDDEN
4376 * Source Code Reference:: How to use a linker script defined symbol in source code
4379 @node Simple Assignments
4380 @subsection Simple Assignments
4382 You may assign to a symbol using any of the C assignment operators:
4385 @item @var{symbol} = @var{expression} ;
4386 @itemx @var{symbol} += @var{expression} ;
4387 @itemx @var{symbol} -= @var{expression} ;
4388 @itemx @var{symbol} *= @var{expression} ;
4389 @itemx @var{symbol} /= @var{expression} ;
4390 @itemx @var{symbol} <<= @var{expression} ;
4391 @itemx @var{symbol} >>= @var{expression} ;
4392 @itemx @var{symbol} &= @var{expression} ;
4393 @itemx @var{symbol} |= @var{expression} ;
4396 The first case will define @var{symbol} to the value of
4397 @var{expression}. In the other cases, @var{symbol} must already be
4398 defined, and the value will be adjusted accordingly.
4400 The special symbol name @samp{.} indicates the location counter. You
4401 may only use this within a @code{SECTIONS} command. @xref{Location Counter}.
4403 The semicolon after @var{expression} is required.
4405 Expressions are defined below; see @ref{Expressions}.
4407 You may write symbol assignments as commands in their own right, or as
4408 statements within a @code{SECTIONS} command, or as part of an output
4409 section description in a @code{SECTIONS} command.
4411 The section of the symbol will be set from the section of the
4412 expression; for more information, see @ref{Expression Section}.
4414 Here is an example showing the three different places that symbol
4415 assignments may be used:
4426 _bdata = (. + 3) & ~ 3;
4427 .data : @{ *(.data) @}
4431 In this example, the symbol @samp{floating_point} will be defined as
4432 zero. The symbol @samp{_etext} will be defined as the address following
4433 the last @samp{.text} input section. The symbol @samp{_bdata} will be
4434 defined as the address following the @samp{.text} output section aligned
4435 upward to a 4 byte boundary.
4440 For ELF targeted ports, define a symbol that will be hidden and won't be
4441 exported. The syntax is @code{HIDDEN(@var{symbol} = @var{expression})}.
4443 Here is the example from @ref{Simple Assignments}, rewritten to use
4447 HIDDEN(floating_point = 0);
4455 HIDDEN(_bdata = (. + 3) & ~ 3);
4456 .data : @{ *(.data) @}
4460 In this case none of the three symbols will be visible outside this module.
4465 In some cases, it is desirable for a linker script to define a symbol
4466 only if it is referenced and is not defined by any object included in
4467 the link. For example, traditional linkers defined the symbol
4468 @samp{etext}. However, ANSI C requires that the user be able to use
4469 @samp{etext} as a function name without encountering an error. The
4470 @code{PROVIDE} keyword may be used to define a symbol, such as
4471 @samp{etext}, only if it is referenced but not defined. The syntax is
4472 @code{PROVIDE(@var{symbol} = @var{expression})}.
4474 Here is an example of using @code{PROVIDE} to define @samp{etext}:
4487 In this example, if the program defines @samp{_etext} (with a leading
4488 underscore), the linker will give a multiple definition diagnostic. If,
4489 on the other hand, the program defines @samp{etext} (with no leading
4490 underscore), the linker will silently use the definition in the program.
4491 If the program references @samp{etext} but does not define it, the
4492 linker will use the definition in the linker script.
4494 Note - the @code{PROVIDE} directive considers a common symbol to be
4495 defined, even though such a symbol could be combined with the symbol
4496 that the @code{PROVIDE} would create. This is particularly important
4497 when considering constructor and destructor list symbols such as
4498 @samp{__CTOR_LIST__} as these are often defined as common symbols.
4500 @node PROVIDE_HIDDEN
4501 @subsection PROVIDE_HIDDEN
4502 @cindex PROVIDE_HIDDEN
4503 Similar to @code{PROVIDE}. For ELF targeted ports, the symbol will be
4504 hidden and won't be exported.
4506 @node Source Code Reference
4507 @subsection Source Code Reference
4509 Accessing a linker script defined variable from source code is not
4510 intuitive. In particular a linker script symbol is not equivalent to
4511 a variable declaration in a high level language, it is instead a
4512 symbol that does not have a value.
4514 Before going further, it is important to note that compilers often
4515 transform names in the source code into different names when they are
4516 stored in the symbol table. For example, Fortran compilers commonly
4517 prepend or append an underscore, and C++ performs extensive @samp{name
4518 mangling}. Therefore there might be a discrepancy between the name
4519 of a variable as it is used in source code and the name of the same
4520 variable as it is defined in a linker script. For example in C a
4521 linker script variable might be referred to as:
4527 But in the linker script it might be defined as:
4533 In the remaining examples however it is assumed that no name
4534 transformation has taken place.
4536 When a symbol is declared in a high level language such as C, two
4537 things happen. The first is that the compiler reserves enough space
4538 in the program's memory to hold the @emph{value} of the symbol. The
4539 second is that the compiler creates an entry in the program's symbol
4540 table which holds the symbol's @emph{address}. ie the symbol table
4541 contains the address of the block of memory holding the symbol's
4542 value. So for example the following C declaration, at file scope:
4548 creates an entry called @samp{foo} in the symbol table. This entry
4549 holds the address of an @samp{int} sized block of memory where the
4550 number 1000 is initially stored.
4552 When a program references a symbol the compiler generates code that
4553 first accesses the symbol table to find the address of the symbol's
4554 memory block and then code to read the value from that memory block.
4561 looks up the symbol @samp{foo} in the symbol table, gets the address
4562 associated with this symbol and then writes the value 1 into that
4569 looks up the symbol @samp{foo} in the symbol table, gets its address
4570 and then copies this address into the block of memory associated with
4571 the variable @samp{a}.
4573 Linker scripts symbol declarations, by contrast, create an entry in
4574 the symbol table but do not assign any memory to them. Thus they are
4575 an address without a value. So for example the linker script definition:
4581 creates an entry in the symbol table called @samp{foo} which holds
4582 the address of memory location 1000, but nothing special is stored at
4583 address 1000. This means that you cannot access the @emph{value} of a
4584 linker script defined symbol - it has no value - all you can do is
4585 access the @emph{address} of a linker script defined symbol.
4587 Hence when you are using a linker script defined symbol in source code
4588 you should always take the address of the symbol, and never attempt to
4589 use its value. For example suppose you want to copy the contents of a
4590 section of memory called .ROM into a section called .FLASH and the
4591 linker script contains these declarations:
4595 start_of_ROM = .ROM;
4596 end_of_ROM = .ROM + sizeof (.ROM);
4597 start_of_FLASH = .FLASH;
4601 Then the C source code to perform the copy would be:
4605 extern char start_of_ROM, end_of_ROM, start_of_FLASH;
4607 memcpy (& start_of_FLASH, & start_of_ROM, & end_of_ROM - & start_of_ROM);
4611 Note the use of the @samp{&} operators. These are correct.
4612 Alternatively the symbols can be treated as the names of vectors or
4613 arrays and then the code will again work as expected:
4617 extern char start_of_ROM[], end_of_ROM[], start_of_FLASH[];
4619 memcpy (start_of_FLASH, start_of_ROM, end_of_ROM - start_of_ROM);
4623 Note how using this method does not require the use of @samp{&}
4627 @section SECTIONS Command
4629 The @code{SECTIONS} command tells the linker how to map input sections
4630 into output sections, and how to place the output sections in memory.
4632 The format of the @code{SECTIONS} command is:
4636 @var{sections-command}
4637 @var{sections-command}
4642 Each @var{sections-command} may of be one of the following:
4646 an @code{ENTRY} command (@pxref{Entry Point,,Entry command})
4648 a symbol assignment (@pxref{Assignments})
4650 an output section description
4652 an overlay description
4655 The @code{ENTRY} command and symbol assignments are permitted inside the
4656 @code{SECTIONS} command for convenience in using the location counter in
4657 those commands. This can also make the linker script easier to
4658 understand because you can use those commands at meaningful points in
4659 the layout of the output file.
4661 Output section descriptions and overlay descriptions are described
4664 If you do not use a @code{SECTIONS} command in your linker script, the
4665 linker will place each input section into an identically named output
4666 section in the order that the sections are first encountered in the
4667 input files. If all input sections are present in the first file, for
4668 example, the order of sections in the output file will match the order
4669 in the first input file. The first section will be at address zero.
4672 * Output Section Description:: Output section description
4673 * Output Section Name:: Output section name
4674 * Output Section Address:: Output section address
4675 * Input Section:: Input section description
4676 * Output Section Data:: Output section data
4677 * Output Section Keywords:: Output section keywords
4678 * Output Section Discarding:: Output section discarding
4679 * Output Section Attributes:: Output section attributes
4680 * Overlay Description:: Overlay description
4683 @node Output Section Description
4684 @subsection Output Section Description
4685 The full description of an output section looks like this:
4688 @var{section} [@var{address}] [(@var{type})] :
4690 [ALIGN(@var{section_align}) | ALIGN_WITH_INPUT]
4691 [SUBALIGN(@var{subsection_align})]
4694 @var{output-section-command}
4695 @var{output-section-command}
4697 @} [>@var{region}] [AT>@var{lma_region}] [:@var{phdr} :@var{phdr} @dots{}] [=@var{fillexp}] [,]
4701 Most output sections do not use most of the optional section attributes.
4703 The whitespace around @var{section} is required, so that the section
4704 name is unambiguous. The colon and the curly braces are also required.
4705 The comma at the end may be required if a @var{fillexp} is used and
4706 the next @var{sections-command} looks like a continuation of the expression.
4707 The line breaks and other white space are optional.
4709 Each @var{output-section-command} may be one of the following:
4713 a symbol assignment (@pxref{Assignments})
4715 an input section description (@pxref{Input Section})
4717 data values to include directly (@pxref{Output Section Data})
4719 a special output section keyword (@pxref{Output Section Keywords})
4722 @node Output Section Name
4723 @subsection Output Section Name
4724 @cindex name, section
4725 @cindex section name
4726 The name of the output section is @var{section}. @var{section} must
4727 meet the constraints of your output format. In formats which only
4728 support a limited number of sections, such as @code{a.out}, the name
4729 must be one of the names supported by the format (@code{a.out}, for
4730 example, allows only @samp{.text}, @samp{.data} or @samp{.bss}). If the
4731 output format supports any number of sections, but with numbers and not
4732 names (as is the case for Oasys), the name should be supplied as a
4733 quoted numeric string. A section name may consist of any sequence of
4734 characters, but a name which contains any unusual characters such as
4735 commas must be quoted.
4737 The output section name @samp{/DISCARD/} is special; @ref{Output Section
4740 @node Output Section Address
4741 @subsection Output Section Address
4742 @cindex address, section
4743 @cindex section address
4744 The @var{address} is an expression for the VMA (the virtual memory
4745 address) of the output section. This address is optional, but if it
4746 is provided then the output address will be set exactly as specified.
4748 If the output address is not specified then one will be chosen for the
4749 section, based on the heuristic below. This address will be adjusted
4750 to fit the alignment requirement of the output section. The
4751 alignment requirement is the strictest alignment of any input section
4752 contained within the output section.
4754 The output section address heuristic is as follows:
4758 If an output memory @var{region} is set for the section then it
4759 is added to this region and its address will be the next free address
4763 If the MEMORY command has been used to create a list of memory
4764 regions then the first region which has attributes compatible with the
4765 section is selected to contain it. The section's output address will
4766 be the next free address in that region; @ref{MEMORY}.
4769 If no memory regions were specified, or none match the section then
4770 the output address will be based on the current value of the location
4778 .text . : @{ *(.text) @}
4785 .text : @{ *(.text) @}
4789 are subtly different. The first will set the address of the
4790 @samp{.text} output section to the current value of the location
4791 counter. The second will set it to the current value of the location
4792 counter aligned to the strictest alignment of any of the @samp{.text}
4795 The @var{address} may be an arbitrary expression; @ref{Expressions}.
4796 For example, if you want to align the section on a 0x10 byte boundary,
4797 so that the lowest four bits of the section address are zero, you could
4798 do something like this:
4800 .text ALIGN(0x10) : @{ *(.text) @}
4803 This works because @code{ALIGN} returns the current location counter
4804 aligned upward to the specified value.
4806 Specifying @var{address} for a section will change the value of the
4807 location counter, provided that the section is non-empty. (Empty
4808 sections are ignored).
4811 @subsection Input Section Description
4812 @cindex input sections
4813 @cindex mapping input sections to output sections
4814 The most common output section command is an input section description.
4816 The input section description is the most basic linker script operation.
4817 You use output sections to tell the linker how to lay out your program
4818 in memory. You use input section descriptions to tell the linker how to
4819 map the input files into your memory layout.
4822 * Input Section Basics:: Input section basics
4823 * Input Section Wildcards:: Input section wildcard patterns
4824 * Input Section Common:: Input section for common symbols
4825 * Input Section Keep:: Input section and garbage collection
4826 * Input Section Example:: Input section example
4829 @node Input Section Basics
4830 @subsubsection Input Section Basics
4831 @cindex input section basics
4832 An input section description consists of a file name optionally followed
4833 by a list of section names in parentheses.
4835 The file name and the section name may be wildcard patterns, which we
4836 describe further below (@pxref{Input Section Wildcards}).
4838 The most common input section description is to include all input
4839 sections with a particular name in the output section. For example, to
4840 include all input @samp{.text} sections, you would write:
4845 Here the @samp{*} is a wildcard which matches any file name. To exclude a list
4846 @cindex EXCLUDE_FILE
4847 of files from matching the file name wildcard, EXCLUDE_FILE may be used to
4848 match all files except the ones specified in the EXCLUDE_FILE list. For
4851 EXCLUDE_FILE (*crtend.o *otherfile.o) *(.ctors)
4854 will cause all .ctors sections from all files except @file{crtend.o}
4855 and @file{otherfile.o} to be included. The EXCLUDE_FILE can also be
4856 placed inside the section list, for example:
4858 *(EXCLUDE_FILE (*crtend.o *otherfile.o) .ctors)
4861 The result of this is identically to the previous example. Supporting
4862 two syntaxes for EXCLUDE_FILE is useful if the section list contains
4863 more than one section, as described below.
4865 There are two ways to include more than one section:
4871 The difference between these is the order in which the @samp{.text} and
4872 @samp{.rdata} input sections will appear in the output section. In the
4873 first example, they will be intermingled, appearing in the same order as
4874 they are found in the linker input. In the second example, all
4875 @samp{.text} input sections will appear first, followed by all
4876 @samp{.rdata} input sections.
4878 When using EXCLUDE_FILE with more than one section, if the exclusion
4879 is within the section list then the exclusion only applies to the
4880 immediately following section, for example:
4882 *(EXCLUDE_FILE (*somefile.o) .text .rdata)
4885 will cause all @samp{.text} sections from all files except
4886 @file{somefile.o} to be included, while all @samp{.rdata} sections
4887 from all files, including @file{somefile.o}, will be included. To
4888 exclude the @samp{.rdata} sections from @file{somefile.o} the example
4889 could be modified to:
4891 *(EXCLUDE_FILE (*somefile.o) .text EXCLUDE_FILE (*somefile.o) .rdata)
4894 Alternatively, placing the EXCLUDE_FILE outside of the section list,
4895 before the input file selection, will cause the exclusion to apply for
4896 all sections. Thus the previous example can be rewritten as:
4898 EXCLUDE_FILE (*somefile.o) *(.text .rdata)
4901 You can specify a file name to include sections from a particular file.
4902 You would do this if one or more of your files contain special data that
4903 needs to be at a particular location in memory. For example:
4908 To refine the sections that are included based on the section flags
4909 of an input section, INPUT_SECTION_FLAGS may be used.
4911 Here is a simple example for using Section header flags for ELF sections:
4916 .text : @{ INPUT_SECTION_FLAGS (SHF_MERGE & SHF_STRINGS) *(.text) @}
4917 .text2 : @{ INPUT_SECTION_FLAGS (!SHF_WRITE) *(.text) @}
4922 In this example, the output section @samp{.text} will be comprised of any
4923 input section matching the name *(.text) whose section header flags
4924 @code{SHF_MERGE} and @code{SHF_STRINGS} are set. The output section
4925 @samp{.text2} will be comprised of any input section matching the name *(.text)
4926 whose section header flag @code{SHF_WRITE} is clear.
4928 You can also specify files within archives by writing a pattern
4929 matching the archive, a colon, then the pattern matching the file,
4930 with no whitespace around the colon.
4934 matches file within archive
4936 matches the whole archive
4938 matches file but not one in an archive
4941 Either one or both of @samp{archive} and @samp{file} can contain shell
4942 wildcards. On DOS based file systems, the linker will assume that a
4943 single letter followed by a colon is a drive specifier, so
4944 @samp{c:myfile.o} is a simple file specification, not @samp{myfile.o}
4945 within an archive called @samp{c}. @samp{archive:file} filespecs may
4946 also be used within an @code{EXCLUDE_FILE} list, but may not appear in
4947 other linker script contexts. For instance, you cannot extract a file
4948 from an archive by using @samp{archive:file} in an @code{INPUT}
4951 If you use a file name without a list of sections, then all sections in
4952 the input file will be included in the output section. This is not
4953 commonly done, but it may by useful on occasion. For example:
4958 When you use a file name which is not an @samp{archive:file} specifier
4959 and does not contain any wild card
4960 characters, the linker will first see if you also specified the file
4961 name on the linker command line or in an @code{INPUT} command. If you
4962 did not, the linker will attempt to open the file as an input file, as
4963 though it appeared on the command line. Note that this differs from an
4964 @code{INPUT} command, because the linker will not search for the file in
4965 the archive search path.
4967 @node Input Section Wildcards
4968 @subsubsection Input Section Wildcard Patterns
4969 @cindex input section wildcards
4970 @cindex wildcard file name patterns
4971 @cindex file name wildcard patterns
4972 @cindex section name wildcard patterns
4973 In an input section description, either the file name or the section
4974 name or both may be wildcard patterns.
4976 The file name of @samp{*} seen in many examples is a simple wildcard
4977 pattern for the file name.
4979 The wildcard patterns are like those used by the Unix shell.
4983 matches any number of characters
4985 matches any single character
4987 matches a single instance of any of the @var{chars}; the @samp{-}
4988 character may be used to specify a range of characters, as in
4989 @samp{[a-z]} to match any lower case letter
4991 quotes the following character
4994 When a file name is matched with a wildcard, the wildcard characters
4995 will not match a @samp{/} character (used to separate directory names on
4996 Unix). A pattern consisting of a single @samp{*} character is an
4997 exception; it will always match any file name, whether it contains a
4998 @samp{/} or not. In a section name, the wildcard characters will match
4999 a @samp{/} character.
5001 File name wildcard patterns only match files which are explicitly
5002 specified on the command line or in an @code{INPUT} command. The linker
5003 does not search directories to expand wildcards.
5005 If a file name matches more than one wildcard pattern, or if a file name
5006 appears explicitly and is also matched by a wildcard pattern, the linker
5007 will use the first match in the linker script. For example, this
5008 sequence of input section descriptions is probably in error, because the
5009 @file{data.o} rule will not be used:
5011 .data : @{ *(.data) @}
5012 .data1 : @{ data.o(.data) @}
5015 @cindex SORT_BY_NAME
5016 Normally, the linker will place files and sections matched by wildcards
5017 in the order in which they are seen during the link. You can change
5018 this by using the @code{SORT_BY_NAME} keyword, which appears before a wildcard
5019 pattern in parentheses (e.g., @code{SORT_BY_NAME(.text*)}). When the
5020 @code{SORT_BY_NAME} keyword is used, the linker will sort the files or sections
5021 into ascending order by name before placing them in the output file.
5023 @cindex SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT
5024 @code{SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT} is similar to @code{SORT_BY_NAME}.
5025 @code{SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT} will sort sections into descending order of
5026 alignment before placing them in the output file. Placing larger
5027 alignments before smaller alignments can reduce the amount of padding
5030 @cindex SORT_BY_INIT_PRIORITY
5031 @code{SORT_BY_INIT_PRIORITY} is also similar to @code{SORT_BY_NAME}.
5032 @code{SORT_BY_INIT_PRIORITY} will sort sections into ascending
5033 numerical order of the GCC init_priority attribute encoded in the
5034 section name before placing them in the output file. In
5035 @code{.init_array.NNNNN} and @code{.fini_array.NNNNN}, @code{NNNNN} is
5036 the init_priority. In @code{.ctors.NNNNN} and @code{.dtors.NNNNN},
5037 @code{NNNNN} is 65535 minus the init_priority.
5040 @code{SORT} is an alias for @code{SORT_BY_NAME}.
5042 When there are nested section sorting commands in linker script, there
5043 can be at most 1 level of nesting for section sorting commands.
5047 @code{SORT_BY_NAME} (@code{SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT} (wildcard section pattern)).
5048 It will sort the input sections by name first, then by alignment if two
5049 sections have the same name.
5051 @code{SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT} (@code{SORT_BY_NAME} (wildcard section pattern)).
5052 It will sort the input sections by alignment first, then by name if two
5053 sections have the same alignment.
5055 @code{SORT_BY_NAME} (@code{SORT_BY_NAME} (wildcard section pattern)) is
5056 treated the same as @code{SORT_BY_NAME} (wildcard section pattern).
5058 @code{SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT} (@code{SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT} (wildcard section pattern))
5059 is treated the same as @code{SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT} (wildcard section pattern).
5061 All other nested section sorting commands are invalid.
5064 When both command-line section sorting option and linker script
5065 section sorting command are used, section sorting command always
5066 takes precedence over the command-line option.
5068 If the section sorting command in linker script isn't nested, the
5069 command-line option will make the section sorting command to be
5070 treated as nested sorting command.
5074 @code{SORT_BY_NAME} (wildcard section pattern ) with
5075 @option{--sort-sections alignment} is equivalent to
5076 @code{SORT_BY_NAME} (@code{SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT} (wildcard section pattern)).
5078 @code{SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT} (wildcard section pattern) with
5079 @option{--sort-section name} is equivalent to
5080 @code{SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT} (@code{SORT_BY_NAME} (wildcard section pattern)).
5083 If the section sorting command in linker script is nested, the
5084 command-line option will be ignored.
5087 @code{SORT_NONE} disables section sorting by ignoring the command-line
5088 section sorting option.
5090 If you ever get confused about where input sections are going, use the
5091 @samp{-M} linker option to generate a map file. The map file shows
5092 precisely how input sections are mapped to output sections.
5094 This example shows how wildcard patterns might be used to partition
5095 files. This linker script directs the linker to place all @samp{.text}
5096 sections in @samp{.text} and all @samp{.bss} sections in @samp{.bss}.
5097 The linker will place the @samp{.data} section from all files beginning
5098 with an upper case character in @samp{.DATA}; for all other files, the
5099 linker will place the @samp{.data} section in @samp{.data}.
5103 .text : @{ *(.text) @}
5104 .DATA : @{ [A-Z]*(.data) @}
5105 .data : @{ *(.data) @}
5106 .bss : @{ *(.bss) @}
5111 @node Input Section Common
5112 @subsubsection Input Section for Common Symbols
5113 @cindex common symbol placement
5114 @cindex uninitialized data placement
5115 A special notation is needed for common symbols, because in many object
5116 file formats common symbols do not have a particular input section. The
5117 linker treats common symbols as though they are in an input section
5118 named @samp{COMMON}.
5120 You may use file names with the @samp{COMMON} section just as with any
5121 other input sections. You can use this to place common symbols from a
5122 particular input file in one section while common symbols from other
5123 input files are placed in another section.
5125 In most cases, common symbols in input files will be placed in the
5126 @samp{.bss} section in the output file. For example:
5128 .bss @{ *(.bss) *(COMMON) @}
5131 @cindex scommon section
5132 @cindex small common symbols
5133 Some object file formats have more than one type of common symbol. For
5134 example, the MIPS ELF object file format distinguishes standard common
5135 symbols and small common symbols. In this case, the linker will use a
5136 different special section name for other types of common symbols. In
5137 the case of MIPS ELF, the linker uses @samp{COMMON} for standard common
5138 symbols and @samp{.scommon} for small common symbols. This permits you
5139 to map the different types of common symbols into memory at different
5143 You will sometimes see @samp{[COMMON]} in old linker scripts. This
5144 notation is now considered obsolete. It is equivalent to
5147 @node Input Section Keep
5148 @subsubsection Input Section and Garbage Collection
5150 @cindex garbage collection
5151 When link-time garbage collection is in use (@samp{--gc-sections}),
5152 it is often useful to mark sections that should not be eliminated.
5153 This is accomplished by surrounding an input section's wildcard entry
5154 with @code{KEEP()}, as in @code{KEEP(*(.init))} or
5155 @code{KEEP(SORT_BY_NAME(*)(.ctors))}.
5157 @node Input Section Example
5158 @subsubsection Input Section Example
5159 The following example is a complete linker script. It tells the linker
5160 to read all of the sections from file @file{all.o} and place them at the
5161 start of output section @samp{outputa} which starts at location
5162 @samp{0x10000}. All of section @samp{.input1} from file @file{foo.o}
5163 follows immediately, in the same output section. All of section
5164 @samp{.input2} from @file{foo.o} goes into output section
5165 @samp{outputb}, followed by section @samp{.input1} from @file{foo1.o}.
5166 All of the remaining @samp{.input1} and @samp{.input2} sections from any
5167 files are written to output section @samp{outputc}.
5195 If an output section's name is the same as the input section's name
5196 and is representable as a C identifier, then the linker will
5197 automatically @pxref{PROVIDE} two symbols: __start_SECNAME and
5198 __stop_SECNAME, where SECNAME is the name of the section. These
5199 indicate the start address and end address of the output section
5200 respectively. Note: most section names are not representable as
5201 C identifiers because they contain a @samp{.} character.
5203 @node Output Section Data
5204 @subsection Output Section Data
5206 @cindex section data
5207 @cindex output section data
5208 @kindex BYTE(@var{expression})
5209 @kindex SHORT(@var{expression})
5210 @kindex LONG(@var{expression})
5211 @kindex QUAD(@var{expression})
5212 @kindex SQUAD(@var{expression})
5213 You can include explicit bytes of data in an output section by using
5214 @code{BYTE}, @code{SHORT}, @code{LONG}, @code{QUAD}, or @code{SQUAD} as
5215 an output section command. Each keyword is followed by an expression in
5216 parentheses providing the value to store (@pxref{Expressions}). The
5217 value of the expression is stored at the current value of the location
5220 The @code{BYTE}, @code{SHORT}, @code{LONG}, and @code{QUAD} commands
5221 store one, two, four, and eight bytes (respectively). After storing the
5222 bytes, the location counter is incremented by the number of bytes
5225 For example, this will store the byte 1 followed by the four byte value
5226 of the symbol @samp{addr}:
5232 When using a 64 bit host or target, @code{QUAD} and @code{SQUAD} are the
5233 same; they both store an 8 byte, or 64 bit, value. When both host and
5234 target are 32 bits, an expression is computed as 32 bits. In this case
5235 @code{QUAD} stores a 32 bit value zero extended to 64 bits, and
5236 @code{SQUAD} stores a 32 bit value sign extended to 64 bits.
5238 If the object file format of the output file has an explicit endianness,
5239 which is the normal case, the value will be stored in that endianness.
5240 When the object file format does not have an explicit endianness, as is
5241 true of, for example, S-records, the value will be stored in the
5242 endianness of the first input object file.
5244 Note---these commands only work inside a section description and not
5245 between them, so the following will produce an error from the linker:
5247 SECTIONS @{@ .text : @{@ *(.text) @}@ LONG(1) .data : @{@ *(.data) @}@ @}@
5249 whereas this will work:
5251 SECTIONS @{@ .text : @{@ *(.text) ; LONG(1) @}@ .data : @{@ *(.data) @}@ @}@
5254 @kindex FILL(@var{expression})
5255 @cindex holes, filling
5256 @cindex unspecified memory
5257 You may use the @code{FILL} command to set the fill pattern for the
5258 current section. It is followed by an expression in parentheses. Any
5259 otherwise unspecified regions of memory within the section (for example,
5260 gaps left due to the required alignment of input sections) are filled
5261 with the value of the expression, repeated as
5262 necessary. A @code{FILL} statement covers memory locations after the
5263 point at which it occurs in the section definition; by including more
5264 than one @code{FILL} statement, you can have different fill patterns in
5265 different parts of an output section.
5267 This example shows how to fill unspecified regions of memory with the
5273 The @code{FILL} command is similar to the @samp{=@var{fillexp}} output
5274 section attribute, but it only affects the
5275 part of the section following the @code{FILL} command, rather than the
5276 entire section. If both are used, the @code{FILL} command takes
5277 precedence. @xref{Output Section Fill}, for details on the fill
5280 @node Output Section Keywords
5281 @subsection Output Section Keywords
5282 There are a couple of keywords which can appear as output section
5286 @kindex CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS
5287 @cindex input filename symbols
5288 @cindex filename symbols
5289 @item CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS
5290 The command tells the linker to create a symbol for each input file.
5291 The name of each symbol will be the name of the corresponding input
5292 file. The section of each symbol will be the output section in which
5293 the @code{CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS} command appears.
5295 This is conventional for the a.out object file format. It is not
5296 normally used for any other object file format.
5298 @kindex CONSTRUCTORS
5299 @cindex C++ constructors, arranging in link
5300 @cindex constructors, arranging in link
5302 When linking using the a.out object file format, the linker uses an
5303 unusual set construct to support C++ global constructors and
5304 destructors. When linking object file formats which do not support
5305 arbitrary sections, such as ECOFF and XCOFF, the linker will
5306 automatically recognize C++ global constructors and destructors by name.
5307 For these object file formats, the @code{CONSTRUCTORS} command tells the
5308 linker to place constructor information in the output section where the
5309 @code{CONSTRUCTORS} command appears. The @code{CONSTRUCTORS} command is
5310 ignored for other object file formats.
5312 The symbol @w{@code{__CTOR_LIST__}} marks the start of the global
5313 constructors, and the symbol @w{@code{__CTOR_END__}} marks the end.
5314 Similarly, @w{@code{__DTOR_LIST__}} and @w{@code{__DTOR_END__}} mark
5315 the start and end of the global destructors. The
5316 first word in the list is the number of entries, followed by the address
5317 of each constructor or destructor, followed by a zero word. The
5318 compiler must arrange to actually run the code. For these object file
5319 formats @sc{gnu} C++ normally calls constructors from a subroutine
5320 @code{__main}; a call to @code{__main} is automatically inserted into
5321 the startup code for @code{main}. @sc{gnu} C++ normally runs
5322 destructors either by using @code{atexit}, or directly from the function
5325 For object file formats such as @code{COFF} or @code{ELF} which support
5326 arbitrary section names, @sc{gnu} C++ will normally arrange to put the
5327 addresses of global constructors and destructors into the @code{.ctors}
5328 and @code{.dtors} sections. Placing the following sequence into your
5329 linker script will build the sort of table which the @sc{gnu} C++
5330 runtime code expects to see.
5334 LONG((__CTOR_END__ - __CTOR_LIST__) / 4 - 2)
5339 LONG((__DTOR_END__ - __DTOR_LIST__) / 4 - 2)
5345 If you are using the @sc{gnu} C++ support for initialization priority,
5346 which provides some control over the order in which global constructors
5347 are run, you must sort the constructors at link time to ensure that they
5348 are executed in the correct order. When using the @code{CONSTRUCTORS}
5349 command, use @samp{SORT_BY_NAME(CONSTRUCTORS)} instead. When using the
5350 @code{.ctors} and @code{.dtors} sections, use @samp{*(SORT_BY_NAME(.ctors))} and
5351 @samp{*(SORT_BY_NAME(.dtors))} instead of just @samp{*(.ctors)} and
5354 Normally the compiler and linker will handle these issues automatically,
5355 and you will not need to concern yourself with them. However, you may
5356 need to consider this if you are using C++ and writing your own linker
5361 @node Output Section Discarding
5362 @subsection Output Section Discarding
5363 @cindex discarding sections
5364 @cindex sections, discarding
5365 @cindex removing sections
5366 The linker will not normally create output sections with no contents.
5367 This is for convenience when referring to input sections that may or
5368 may not be present in any of the input files. For example:
5370 .foo : @{ *(.foo) @}
5373 will only create a @samp{.foo} section in the output file if there is a
5374 @samp{.foo} section in at least one input file, and if the input
5375 sections are not all empty. Other link script directives that allocate
5376 space in an output section will also create the output section. So
5377 too will assignments to dot even if the assignment does not create
5378 space, except for @samp{. = 0}, @samp{. = . + 0}, @samp{. = sym},
5379 @samp{. = . + sym} and @samp{. = ALIGN (. != 0, expr, 1)} when
5380 @samp{sym} is an absolute symbol of value 0 defined in the script.
5381 This allows you to force output of an empty section with @samp{. = .}.
5383 The linker will ignore address assignments (@pxref{Output Section Address})
5384 on discarded output sections, except when the linker script defines
5385 symbols in the output section. In that case the linker will obey
5386 the address assignments, possibly advancing dot even though the
5387 section is discarded.
5390 The special output section name @samp{/DISCARD/} may be used to discard
5391 input sections. Any input sections which are assigned to an output
5392 section named @samp{/DISCARD/} are not included in the output file.
5394 This can be used to discard input sections marked with the ELF flag
5395 @code{SHF_GNU_RETAIN}, which would otherwise have been saved from linker
5398 Note, sections that match the @samp{/DISCARD/} output section will be
5399 discarded even if they are in an ELF section group which has other
5400 members which are not being discarded. This is deliberate.
5401 Discarding takes precedence over grouping.
5403 @node Output Section Attributes
5404 @subsection Output Section Attributes
5405 @cindex output section attributes
5406 We showed above that the full description of an output section looked
5411 @var{section} [@var{address}] [(@var{type})] :
5413 [ALIGN(@var{section_align}) | ALIGN_WITH_INPUT]
5414 [SUBALIGN(@var{subsection_align})]
5417 @var{output-section-command}
5418 @var{output-section-command}
5420 @} [>@var{region}] [AT>@var{lma_region}] [:@var{phdr} :@var{phdr} @dots{}] [=@var{fillexp}]
5424 We've already described @var{section}, @var{address}, and
5425 @var{output-section-command}. In this section we will describe the
5426 remaining section attributes.
5429 * Output Section Type:: Output section type
5430 * Output Section LMA:: Output section LMA
5431 * Forced Output Alignment:: Forced Output Alignment
5432 * Forced Input Alignment:: Forced Input Alignment
5433 * Output Section Constraint:: Output section constraint
5434 * Output Section Region:: Output section region
5435 * Output Section Phdr:: Output section phdr
5436 * Output Section Fill:: Output section fill
5439 @node Output Section Type
5440 @subsubsection Output Section Type
5441 Each output section may have a type. The type is a keyword in
5442 parentheses. The following types are defined:
5446 The section should be marked as not loadable, so that it will not be
5447 loaded into memory when the program is run.
5452 These type names are supported for backward compatibility, and are
5453 rarely used. They all have the same effect: the section should be
5454 marked as not allocatable, so that no memory is allocated for the
5455 section when the program is run.
5459 @cindex prevent unnecessary loading
5460 @cindex loading, preventing
5461 The linker normally sets the attributes of an output section based on
5462 the input sections which map into it. You can override this by using
5463 the section type. For example, in the script sample below, the
5464 @samp{ROM} section is addressed at memory location @samp{0} and does not
5465 need to be loaded when the program is run.
5469 ROM 0 (NOLOAD) : @{ @dots{} @}
5475 @node Output Section LMA
5476 @subsubsection Output Section LMA
5477 @kindex AT>@var{lma_region}
5478 @kindex AT(@var{lma})
5479 @cindex load address
5480 @cindex section load address
5481 Every section has a virtual address (VMA) and a load address (LMA); see
5482 @ref{Basic Script Concepts}. The virtual address is specified by the
5483 @pxref{Output Section Address} described earlier. The load address is
5484 specified by the @code{AT} or @code{AT>} keywords. Specifying a load
5485 address is optional.
5487 The @code{AT} keyword takes an expression as an argument. This
5488 specifies the exact load address of the section. The @code{AT>} keyword
5489 takes the name of a memory region as an argument. @xref{MEMORY}. The
5490 load address of the section is set to the next free address in the
5491 region, aligned to the section's alignment requirements.
5493 If neither @code{AT} nor @code{AT>} is specified for an allocatable
5494 section, the linker will use the following heuristic to determine the
5499 If the section has a specific VMA address, then this is used as
5500 the LMA address as well.
5503 If the section is not allocatable then its LMA is set to its VMA.
5506 Otherwise if a memory region can be found that is compatible
5507 with the current section, and this region contains at least one
5508 section, then the LMA is set so the difference between the
5509 VMA and LMA is the same as the difference between the VMA and LMA of
5510 the last section in the located region.
5513 If no memory regions have been declared then a default region
5514 that covers the entire address space is used in the previous step.
5517 If no suitable region could be found, or there was no previous
5518 section then the LMA is set equal to the VMA.
5521 @cindex ROM initialized data
5522 @cindex initialized data in ROM
5523 This feature is designed to make it easy to build a ROM image. For
5524 example, the following linker script creates three output sections: one
5525 called @samp{.text}, which starts at @code{0x1000}, one called
5526 @samp{.mdata}, which is loaded at the end of the @samp{.text} section
5527 even though its VMA is @code{0x2000}, and one called @samp{.bss} to hold
5528 uninitialized data at address @code{0x3000}. The symbol @code{_data} is
5529 defined with the value @code{0x2000}, which shows that the location
5530 counter holds the VMA value, not the LMA value.
5536 .text 0x1000 : @{ *(.text) _etext = . ; @}
5538 AT ( ADDR (.text) + SIZEOF (.text) )
5539 @{ _data = . ; *(.data); _edata = . ; @}
5541 @{ _bstart = . ; *(.bss) *(COMMON) ; _bend = . ;@}
5546 The run-time initialization code for use with a program generated with
5547 this linker script would include something like the following, to copy
5548 the initialized data from the ROM image to its runtime address. Notice
5549 how this code takes advantage of the symbols defined by the linker
5554 extern char _etext, _data, _edata, _bstart, _bend;
5555 char *src = &_etext;
5558 /* ROM has data at end of text; copy it. */
5559 while (dst < &_edata)
5563 for (dst = &_bstart; dst< &_bend; dst++)
5568 @node Forced Output Alignment
5569 @subsubsection Forced Output Alignment
5570 @kindex ALIGN(@var{section_align})
5571 @cindex forcing output section alignment
5572 @cindex output section alignment
5573 You can increase an output section's alignment by using ALIGN. As an
5574 alternative you can enforce that the difference between the VMA and LMA remains
5575 intact throughout this output section with the ALIGN_WITH_INPUT attribute.
5577 @node Forced Input Alignment
5578 @subsubsection Forced Input Alignment
5579 @kindex SUBALIGN(@var{subsection_align})
5580 @cindex forcing input section alignment
5581 @cindex input section alignment
5582 You can force input section alignment within an output section by using
5583 SUBALIGN. The value specified overrides any alignment given by input
5584 sections, whether larger or smaller.
5586 @node Output Section Constraint
5587 @subsubsection Output Section Constraint
5590 @cindex constraints on output sections
5591 You can specify that an output section should only be created if all
5592 of its input sections are read-only or all of its input sections are
5593 read-write by using the keyword @code{ONLY_IF_RO} and
5594 @code{ONLY_IF_RW} respectively.
5596 @node Output Section Region
5597 @subsubsection Output Section Region
5598 @kindex >@var{region}
5599 @cindex section, assigning to memory region
5600 @cindex memory regions and sections
5601 You can assign a section to a previously defined region of memory by
5602 using @samp{>@var{region}}. @xref{MEMORY}.
5604 Here is a simple example:
5607 MEMORY @{ rom : ORIGIN = 0x1000, LENGTH = 0x1000 @}
5608 SECTIONS @{ ROM : @{ *(.text) @} >rom @}
5612 @node Output Section Phdr
5613 @subsubsection Output Section Phdr
5615 @cindex section, assigning to program header
5616 @cindex program headers and sections
5617 You can assign a section to a previously defined program segment by
5618 using @samp{:@var{phdr}}. @xref{PHDRS}. If a section is assigned to
5619 one or more segments, then all subsequent allocated sections will be
5620 assigned to those segments as well, unless they use an explicitly
5621 @code{:@var{phdr}} modifier. You can use @code{:NONE} to tell the
5622 linker to not put the section in any segment at all.
5624 Here is a simple example:
5627 PHDRS @{ text PT_LOAD ; @}
5628 SECTIONS @{ .text : @{ *(.text) @} :text @}
5632 @node Output Section Fill
5633 @subsubsection Output Section Fill
5634 @kindex =@var{fillexp}
5635 @cindex section fill pattern
5636 @cindex fill pattern, entire section
5637 You can set the fill pattern for an entire section by using
5638 @samp{=@var{fillexp}}. @var{fillexp} is an expression
5639 (@pxref{Expressions}). Any otherwise unspecified regions of memory
5640 within the output section (for example, gaps left due to the required
5641 alignment of input sections) will be filled with the value, repeated as
5642 necessary. If the fill expression is a simple hex number, ie. a string
5643 of hex digit starting with @samp{0x} and without a trailing @samp{k} or @samp{M}, then
5644 an arbitrarily long sequence of hex digits can be used to specify the
5645 fill pattern; Leading zeros become part of the pattern too. For all
5646 other cases, including extra parentheses or a unary @code{+}, the fill
5647 pattern is the four least significant bytes of the value of the
5648 expression. In all cases, the number is big-endian.
5650 You can also change the fill value with a @code{FILL} command in the
5651 output section commands; (@pxref{Output Section Data}).
5653 Here is a simple example:
5656 SECTIONS @{ .text : @{ *(.text) @} =0x90909090 @}
5660 @node Overlay Description
5661 @subsection Overlay Description
5664 An overlay description provides an easy way to describe sections which
5665 are to be loaded as part of a single memory image but are to be run at
5666 the same memory address. At run time, some sort of overlay manager will
5667 copy the overlaid sections in and out of the runtime memory address as
5668 required, perhaps by simply manipulating addressing bits. This approach
5669 can be useful, for example, when a certain region of memory is faster
5672 Overlays are described using the @code{OVERLAY} command. The
5673 @code{OVERLAY} command is used within a @code{SECTIONS} command, like an
5674 output section description. The full syntax of the @code{OVERLAY}
5675 command is as follows:
5678 OVERLAY [@var{start}] : [NOCROSSREFS] [AT ( @var{ldaddr} )]
5682 @var{output-section-command}
5683 @var{output-section-command}
5685 @} [:@var{phdr}@dots{}] [=@var{fill}]
5688 @var{output-section-command}
5689 @var{output-section-command}
5691 @} [:@var{phdr}@dots{}] [=@var{fill}]
5693 @} [>@var{region}] [:@var{phdr}@dots{}] [=@var{fill}] [,]
5697 Everything is optional except @code{OVERLAY} (a keyword), and each
5698 section must have a name (@var{secname1} and @var{secname2} above). The
5699 section definitions within the @code{OVERLAY} construct are identical to
5700 those within the general @code{SECTIONS} construct (@pxref{SECTIONS}),
5701 except that no addresses and no memory regions may be defined for
5702 sections within an @code{OVERLAY}.
5704 The comma at the end may be required if a @var{fill} is used and
5705 the next @var{sections-command} looks like a continuation of the expression.
5707 The sections are all defined with the same starting address. The load
5708 addresses of the sections are arranged such that they are consecutive in
5709 memory starting at the load address used for the @code{OVERLAY} as a
5710 whole (as with normal section definitions, the load address is optional,
5711 and defaults to the start address; the start address is also optional,
5712 and defaults to the current value of the location counter).
5714 If the @code{NOCROSSREFS} keyword is used, and there are any
5715 references among the sections, the linker will report an error. Since
5716 the sections all run at the same address, it normally does not make
5717 sense for one section to refer directly to another.
5718 @xref{Miscellaneous Commands, NOCROSSREFS}.
5720 For each section within the @code{OVERLAY}, the linker automatically
5721 provides two symbols. The symbol @code{__load_start_@var{secname}} is
5722 defined as the starting load address of the section. The symbol
5723 @code{__load_stop_@var{secname}} is defined as the final load address of
5724 the section. Any characters within @var{secname} which are not legal
5725 within C identifiers are removed. C (or assembler) code may use these
5726 symbols to move the overlaid sections around as necessary.
5728 At the end of the overlay, the value of the location counter is set to
5729 the start address of the overlay plus the size of the largest section.
5731 Here is an example. Remember that this would appear inside a
5732 @code{SECTIONS} construct.
5735 OVERLAY 0x1000 : AT (0x4000)
5737 .text0 @{ o1/*.o(.text) @}
5738 .text1 @{ o2/*.o(.text) @}
5743 This will define both @samp{.text0} and @samp{.text1} to start at
5744 address 0x1000. @samp{.text0} will be loaded at address 0x4000, and
5745 @samp{.text1} will be loaded immediately after @samp{.text0}. The
5746 following symbols will be defined if referenced: @code{__load_start_text0},
5747 @code{__load_stop_text0}, @code{__load_start_text1},
5748 @code{__load_stop_text1}.
5750 C code to copy overlay @code{.text1} into the overlay area might look
5755 extern char __load_start_text1, __load_stop_text1;
5756 memcpy ((char *) 0x1000, &__load_start_text1,
5757 &__load_stop_text1 - &__load_start_text1);
5761 Note that the @code{OVERLAY} command is just syntactic sugar, since
5762 everything it does can be done using the more basic commands. The above
5763 example could have been written identically as follows.
5767 .text0 0x1000 : AT (0x4000) @{ o1/*.o(.text) @}
5768 PROVIDE (__load_start_text0 = LOADADDR (.text0));
5769 PROVIDE (__load_stop_text0 = LOADADDR (.text0) + SIZEOF (.text0));
5770 .text1 0x1000 : AT (0x4000 + SIZEOF (.text0)) @{ o2/*.o(.text) @}
5771 PROVIDE (__load_start_text1 = LOADADDR (.text1));
5772 PROVIDE (__load_stop_text1 = LOADADDR (.text1) + SIZEOF (.text1));
5773 . = 0x1000 + MAX (SIZEOF (.text0), SIZEOF (.text1));
5778 @section MEMORY Command
5780 @cindex memory regions
5781 @cindex regions of memory
5782 @cindex allocating memory
5783 @cindex discontinuous memory
5784 The linker's default configuration permits allocation of all available
5785 memory. You can override this by using the @code{MEMORY} command.
5787 The @code{MEMORY} command describes the location and size of blocks of
5788 memory in the target. You can use it to describe which memory regions
5789 may be used by the linker, and which memory regions it must avoid. You
5790 can then assign sections to particular memory regions. The linker will
5791 set section addresses based on the memory regions, and will warn about
5792 regions that become too full. The linker will not shuffle sections
5793 around to fit into the available regions.
5795 A linker script may contain many uses of the @code{MEMORY} command,
5796 however, all memory blocks defined are treated as if they were
5797 specified inside a single @code{MEMORY} command. The syntax for
5803 @var{name} [(@var{attr})] : ORIGIN = @var{origin}, LENGTH = @var{len}
5809 The @var{name} is a name used in the linker script to refer to the
5810 region. The region name has no meaning outside of the linker script.
5811 Region names are stored in a separate name space, and will not conflict
5812 with symbol names, file names, or section names. Each memory region
5813 must have a distinct name within the @code{MEMORY} command. However you can
5814 add later alias names to existing memory regions with the @ref{REGION_ALIAS}
5817 @cindex memory region attributes
5818 The @var{attr} string is an optional list of attributes that specify
5819 whether to use a particular memory region for an input section which is
5820 not explicitly mapped in the linker script. As described in
5821 @ref{SECTIONS}, if you do not specify an output section for some input
5822 section, the linker will create an output section with the same name as
5823 the input section. If you define region attributes, the linker will use
5824 them to select the memory region for the output section that it creates.
5826 The @var{attr} string must consist only of the following characters:
5841 Invert the sense of any of the attributes that follow
5844 If an unmapped section matches any of the listed attributes other than
5845 @samp{!}, it will be placed in the memory region. The @samp{!}
5846 attribute reverses the test for the characters that follow, so that an
5847 unmapped section will be placed in the memory region only if it does
5848 not match any of the attributes listed afterwards. Thus an attribute
5849 string of @samp{RW!X} will match any unmapped section that has either
5850 or both of the @samp{R} and @samp{W} attributes, but only as long as
5851 the section does not also have the @samp{X} attribute.
5856 The @var{origin} is an numerical expression for the start address of
5857 the memory region. The expression must evaluate to a constant and it
5858 cannot involve any symbols. The keyword @code{ORIGIN} may be
5859 abbreviated to @code{org} or @code{o} (but not, for example,
5865 The @var{len} is an expression for the size in bytes of the memory
5866 region. As with the @var{origin} expression, the expression must
5867 be numerical only and must evaluate to a constant. The keyword
5868 @code{LENGTH} may be abbreviated to @code{len} or @code{l}.
5870 In the following example, we specify that there are two memory regions
5871 available for allocation: one starting at @samp{0} for 256 kilobytes,
5872 and the other starting at @samp{0x40000000} for four megabytes. The
5873 linker will place into the @samp{rom} memory region every section which
5874 is not explicitly mapped into a memory region, and is either read-only
5875 or executable. The linker will place other sections which are not
5876 explicitly mapped into a memory region into the @samp{ram} memory
5883 rom (rx) : ORIGIN = 0, LENGTH = 256K
5884 ram (!rx) : org = 0x40000000, l = 4M
5889 Once you define a memory region, you can direct the linker to place
5890 specific output sections into that memory region by using the
5891 @samp{>@var{region}} output section attribute. For example, if you have
5892 a memory region named @samp{mem}, you would use @samp{>mem} in the
5893 output section definition. @xref{Output Section Region}. If no address
5894 was specified for the output section, the linker will set the address to
5895 the next available address within the memory region. If the combined
5896 output sections directed to a memory region are too large for the
5897 region, the linker will issue an error message.
5899 It is possible to access the origin and length of a memory in an
5900 expression via the @code{ORIGIN(@var{memory})} and
5901 @code{LENGTH(@var{memory})} functions:
5905 _fstack = ORIGIN(ram) + LENGTH(ram) - 4;
5910 @section PHDRS Command
5912 @cindex program headers
5913 @cindex ELF program headers
5914 @cindex program segments
5915 @cindex segments, ELF
5916 The ELF object file format uses @dfn{program headers}, also knows as
5917 @dfn{segments}. The program headers describe how the program should be
5918 loaded into memory. You can print them out by using the @code{objdump}
5919 program with the @samp{-p} option.
5921 When you run an ELF program on a native ELF system, the system loader
5922 reads the program headers in order to figure out how to load the
5923 program. This will only work if the program headers are set correctly.
5924 This manual does not describe the details of how the system loader
5925 interprets program headers; for more information, see the ELF ABI.
5927 The linker will create reasonable program headers by default. However,
5928 in some cases, you may need to specify the program headers more
5929 precisely. You may use the @code{PHDRS} command for this purpose. When
5930 the linker sees the @code{PHDRS} command in the linker script, it will
5931 not create any program headers other than the ones specified.
5933 The linker only pays attention to the @code{PHDRS} command when
5934 generating an ELF output file. In other cases, the linker will simply
5935 ignore @code{PHDRS}.
5937 This is the syntax of the @code{PHDRS} command. The words @code{PHDRS},
5938 @code{FILEHDR}, @code{AT}, and @code{FLAGS} are keywords.
5944 @var{name} @var{type} [ FILEHDR ] [ PHDRS ] [ AT ( @var{address} ) ]
5945 [ FLAGS ( @var{flags} ) ] ;
5950 The @var{name} is used only for reference in the @code{SECTIONS} command
5951 of the linker script. It is not put into the output file. Program
5952 header names are stored in a separate name space, and will not conflict
5953 with symbol names, file names, or section names. Each program header
5954 must have a distinct name. The headers are processed in order and it
5955 is usual for them to map to sections in ascending load address order.
5957 Certain program header types describe segments of memory which the
5958 system loader will load from the file. In the linker script, you
5959 specify the contents of these segments by placing allocatable output
5960 sections in the segments. You use the @samp{:@var{phdr}} output section
5961 attribute to place a section in a particular segment. @xref{Output
5964 It is normal to put certain sections in more than one segment. This
5965 merely implies that one segment of memory contains another. You may
5966 repeat @samp{:@var{phdr}}, using it once for each segment which should
5967 contain the section.
5969 If you place a section in one or more segments using @samp{:@var{phdr}},
5970 then the linker will place all subsequent allocatable sections which do
5971 not specify @samp{:@var{phdr}} in the same segments. This is for
5972 convenience, since generally a whole set of contiguous sections will be
5973 placed in a single segment. You can use @code{:NONE} to override the
5974 default segment and tell the linker to not put the section in any
5979 You may use the @code{FILEHDR} and @code{PHDRS} keywords after
5980 the program header type to further describe the contents of the segment.
5981 The @code{FILEHDR} keyword means that the segment should include the ELF
5982 file header. The @code{PHDRS} keyword means that the segment should
5983 include the ELF program headers themselves. If applied to a loadable
5984 segment (@code{PT_LOAD}), all prior loadable segments must have one of
5987 The @var{type} may be one of the following. The numbers indicate the
5988 value of the keyword.
5991 @item @code{PT_NULL} (0)
5992 Indicates an unused program header.
5994 @item @code{PT_LOAD} (1)
5995 Indicates that this program header describes a segment to be loaded from
5998 @item @code{PT_DYNAMIC} (2)
5999 Indicates a segment where dynamic linking information can be found.
6001 @item @code{PT_INTERP} (3)
6002 Indicates a segment where the name of the program interpreter may be
6005 @item @code{PT_NOTE} (4)
6006 Indicates a segment holding note information.
6008 @item @code{PT_SHLIB} (5)
6009 A reserved program header type, defined but not specified by the ELF
6012 @item @code{PT_PHDR} (6)
6013 Indicates a segment where the program headers may be found.
6015 @item @code{PT_TLS} (7)
6016 Indicates a segment containing thread local storage.
6018 @item @var{expression}
6019 An expression giving the numeric type of the program header. This may
6020 be used for types not defined above.
6023 You can specify that a segment should be loaded at a particular address
6024 in memory by using an @code{AT} expression. This is identical to the
6025 @code{AT} command used as an output section attribute (@pxref{Output
6026 Section LMA}). The @code{AT} command for a program header overrides the
6027 output section attribute.
6029 The linker will normally set the segment flags based on the sections
6030 which comprise the segment. You may use the @code{FLAGS} keyword to
6031 explicitly specify the segment flags. The value of @var{flags} must be
6032 an integer. It is used to set the @code{p_flags} field of the program
6035 Here is an example of @code{PHDRS}. This shows a typical set of program
6036 headers used on a native ELF system.
6042 headers PT_PHDR PHDRS ;
6044 text PT_LOAD FILEHDR PHDRS ;
6046 dynamic PT_DYNAMIC ;
6052 .interp : @{ *(.interp) @} :text :interp
6053 .text : @{ *(.text) @} :text
6054 .rodata : @{ *(.rodata) @} /* defaults to :text */
6056 . = . + 0x1000; /* move to a new page in memory */
6057 .data : @{ *(.data) @} :data
6058 .dynamic : @{ *(.dynamic) @} :data :dynamic
6065 @section VERSION Command
6066 @kindex VERSION @{script text@}
6067 @cindex symbol versions
6068 @cindex version script
6069 @cindex versions of symbols
6070 The linker supports symbol versions when using ELF. Symbol versions are
6071 only useful when using shared libraries. The dynamic linker can use
6072 symbol versions to select a specific version of a function when it runs
6073 a program that may have been linked against an earlier version of the
6076 You can include a version script directly in the main linker script, or
6077 you can supply the version script as an implicit linker script. You can
6078 also use the @samp{--version-script} linker option.
6080 The syntax of the @code{VERSION} command is simply
6082 VERSION @{ version-script-commands @}
6085 The format of the version script commands is identical to that used by
6086 Sun's linker in Solaris 2.5. The version script defines a tree of
6087 version nodes. You specify the node names and interdependencies in the
6088 version script. You can specify which symbols are bound to which
6089 version nodes, and you can reduce a specified set of symbols to local
6090 scope so that they are not globally visible outside of the shared
6093 The easiest way to demonstrate the version script language is with a few
6119 This example version script defines three version nodes. The first
6120 version node defined is @samp{VERS_1.1}; it has no other dependencies.
6121 The script binds the symbol @samp{foo1} to @samp{VERS_1.1}. It reduces
6122 a number of symbols to local scope so that they are not visible outside
6123 of the shared library; this is done using wildcard patterns, so that any
6124 symbol whose name begins with @samp{old}, @samp{original}, or @samp{new}
6125 is matched. The wildcard patterns available are the same as those used
6126 in the shell when matching filenames (also known as ``globbing'').
6127 However, if you specify the symbol name inside double quotes, then the
6128 name is treated as literal, rather than as a glob pattern.
6130 Next, the version script defines node @samp{VERS_1.2}. This node
6131 depends upon @samp{VERS_1.1}. The script binds the symbol @samp{foo2}
6132 to the version node @samp{VERS_1.2}.
6134 Finally, the version script defines node @samp{VERS_2.0}. This node
6135 depends upon @samp{VERS_1.2}. The scripts binds the symbols @samp{bar1}
6136 and @samp{bar2} are bound to the version node @samp{VERS_2.0}.
6138 When the linker finds a symbol defined in a library which is not
6139 specifically bound to a version node, it will effectively bind it to an
6140 unspecified base version of the library. You can bind all otherwise
6141 unspecified symbols to a given version node by using @samp{global: *;}
6142 somewhere in the version script. Note that it's slightly crazy to use
6143 wildcards in a global spec except on the last version node. Global
6144 wildcards elsewhere run the risk of accidentally adding symbols to the
6145 set exported for an old version. That's wrong since older versions
6146 ought to have a fixed set of symbols.
6148 The names of the version nodes have no specific meaning other than what
6149 they might suggest to the person reading them. The @samp{2.0} version
6150 could just as well have appeared in between @samp{1.1} and @samp{1.2}.
6151 However, this would be a confusing way to write a version script.
6153 Node name can be omitted, provided it is the only version node
6154 in the version script. Such version script doesn't assign any versions to
6155 symbols, only selects which symbols will be globally visible out and which
6159 @{ global: foo; bar; local: *; @};
6162 When you link an application against a shared library that has versioned
6163 symbols, the application itself knows which version of each symbol it
6164 requires, and it also knows which version nodes it needs from each
6165 shared library it is linked against. Thus at runtime, the dynamic
6166 loader can make a quick check to make sure that the libraries you have
6167 linked against do in fact supply all of the version nodes that the
6168 application will need to resolve all of the dynamic symbols. In this
6169 way it is possible for the dynamic linker to know with certainty that
6170 all external symbols that it needs will be resolvable without having to
6171 search for each symbol reference.
6173 The symbol versioning is in effect a much more sophisticated way of
6174 doing minor version checking that SunOS does. The fundamental problem
6175 that is being addressed here is that typically references to external
6176 functions are bound on an as-needed basis, and are not all bound when
6177 the application starts up. If a shared library is out of date, a
6178 required interface may be missing; when the application tries to use
6179 that interface, it may suddenly and unexpectedly fail. With symbol
6180 versioning, the user will get a warning when they start their program if
6181 the libraries being used with the application are too old.
6183 There are several GNU extensions to Sun's versioning approach. The
6184 first of these is the ability to bind a symbol to a version node in the
6185 source file where the symbol is defined instead of in the versioning
6186 script. This was done mainly to reduce the burden on the library
6187 maintainer. You can do this by putting something like:
6189 __asm__(".symver original_foo,foo@@VERS_1.1");
6192 in the C source file. This renames the function @samp{original_foo} to
6193 be an alias for @samp{foo} bound to the version node @samp{VERS_1.1}.
6194 The @samp{local:} directive can be used to prevent the symbol
6195 @samp{original_foo} from being exported. A @samp{.symver} directive
6196 takes precedence over a version script.
6198 The second GNU extension is to allow multiple versions of the same
6199 function to appear in a given shared library. In this way you can make
6200 an incompatible change to an interface without increasing the major
6201 version number of the shared library, while still allowing applications
6202 linked against the old interface to continue to function.
6204 To do this, you must use multiple @samp{.symver} directives in the
6205 source file. Here is an example:
6208 __asm__(".symver original_foo,foo@@");
6209 __asm__(".symver old_foo,foo@@VERS_1.1");
6210 __asm__(".symver old_foo1,foo@@VERS_1.2");
6211 __asm__(".symver new_foo,foo@@@@VERS_2.0");
6214 In this example, @samp{foo@@} represents the symbol @samp{foo} bound to the
6215 unspecified base version of the symbol. The source file that contains this
6216 example would define 4 C functions: @samp{original_foo}, @samp{old_foo},
6217 @samp{old_foo1}, and @samp{new_foo}.
6219 When you have multiple definitions of a given symbol, there needs to be
6220 some way to specify a default version to which external references to
6221 this symbol will be bound. You can do this with the
6222 @samp{foo@@@@VERS_2.0} type of @samp{.symver} directive. You can only
6223 declare one version of a symbol as the default in this manner; otherwise
6224 you would effectively have multiple definitions of the same symbol.
6226 If you wish to bind a reference to a specific version of the symbol
6227 within the shared library, you can use the aliases of convenience
6228 (i.e., @samp{old_foo}), or you can use the @samp{.symver} directive to
6229 specifically bind to an external version of the function in question.
6231 You can also specify the language in the version script:
6234 VERSION extern "lang" @{ version-script-commands @}
6237 The supported @samp{lang}s are @samp{C}, @samp{C++}, and @samp{Java}.
6238 The linker will iterate over the list of symbols at the link time and
6239 demangle them according to @samp{lang} before matching them to the
6240 patterns specified in @samp{version-script-commands}. The default
6241 @samp{lang} is @samp{C}.
6243 Demangled names may contains spaces and other special characters. As
6244 described above, you can use a glob pattern to match demangled names,
6245 or you can use a double-quoted string to match the string exactly. In
6246 the latter case, be aware that minor differences (such as differing
6247 whitespace) between the version script and the demangler output will
6248 cause a mismatch. As the exact string generated by the demangler
6249 might change in the future, even if the mangled name does not, you
6250 should check that all of your version directives are behaving as you
6251 expect when you upgrade.
6254 @section Expressions in Linker Scripts
6257 The syntax for expressions in the linker script language is identical to
6258 that of C expressions. All expressions are evaluated as integers. All
6259 expressions are evaluated in the same size, which is 32 bits if both the
6260 host and target are 32 bits, and is otherwise 64 bits.
6262 You can use and set symbol values in expressions.
6264 The linker defines several special purpose builtin functions for use in
6268 * Constants:: Constants
6269 * Symbolic Constants:: Symbolic constants
6270 * Symbols:: Symbol Names
6271 * Orphan Sections:: Orphan Sections
6272 * Location Counter:: The Location Counter
6273 * Operators:: Operators
6274 * Evaluation:: Evaluation
6275 * Expression Section:: The Section of an Expression
6276 * Builtin Functions:: Builtin Functions
6280 @subsection Constants
6281 @cindex integer notation
6282 @cindex constants in linker scripts
6283 All constants are integers.
6285 As in C, the linker considers an integer beginning with @samp{0} to be
6286 octal, and an integer beginning with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X} to be
6287 hexadecimal. Alternatively the linker accepts suffixes of @samp{h} or
6288 @samp{H} for hexadecimal, @samp{o} or @samp{O} for octal, @samp{b} or
6289 @samp{B} for binary and @samp{d} or @samp{D} for decimal. Any integer
6290 value without a prefix or a suffix is considered to be decimal.
6292 @cindex scaled integers
6293 @cindex K and M integer suffixes
6294 @cindex M and K integer suffixes
6295 @cindex suffixes for integers
6296 @cindex integer suffixes
6297 In addition, you can use the suffixes @code{K} and @code{M} to scale a
6301 @c END TEXI2ROFF-KILL
6302 @code{1024} or @code{1024*1024}
6306 ${\rm 1024}$ or ${\rm 1024}^2$
6308 @c END TEXI2ROFF-KILL
6309 respectively. For example, the following
6310 all refer to the same quantity:
6319 Note - the @code{K} and @code{M} suffixes cannot be used in
6320 conjunction with the base suffixes mentioned above.
6322 @node Symbolic Constants
6323 @subsection Symbolic Constants
6324 @cindex symbolic constants
6326 It is possible to refer to target-specific constants via the use of
6327 the @code{CONSTANT(@var{name})} operator, where @var{name} is one of:
6332 The target's maximum page size.
6334 @item COMMONPAGESIZE
6335 @kindex COMMONPAGESIZE
6336 The target's default page size.
6342 .text ALIGN (CONSTANT (MAXPAGESIZE)) : @{ *(.text) @}
6345 will create a text section aligned to the largest page boundary
6346 supported by the target.
6349 @subsection Symbol Names
6350 @cindex symbol names
6352 @cindex quoted symbol names
6354 Unless quoted, symbol names start with a letter, underscore, or period
6355 and may include letters, digits, underscores, periods, and hyphens.
6356 Unquoted symbol names must not conflict with any keywords. You can
6357 specify a symbol which contains odd characters or has the same name as a
6358 keyword by surrounding the symbol name in double quotes:
6361 "with a space" = "also with a space" + 10;
6364 Since symbols can contain many non-alphabetic characters, it is safest
6365 to delimit symbols with spaces. For example, @samp{A-B} is one symbol,
6366 whereas @samp{A - B} is an expression involving subtraction.
6368 @node Orphan Sections
6369 @subsection Orphan Sections
6371 Orphan sections are sections present in the input files which
6372 are not explicitly placed into the output file by the linker
6373 script. The linker will still copy these sections into the
6374 output file by either finding, or creating a suitable output section
6375 in which to place the orphaned input section.
6377 If the name of an orphaned input section exactly matches the name of
6378 an existing output section, then the orphaned input section will be
6379 placed at the end of that output section.
6381 If there is no output section with a matching name then new output
6382 sections will be created. Each new output section will have the same
6383 name as the orphan section placed within it. If there are multiple
6384 orphan sections with the same name, these will all be combined into
6385 one new output section.
6387 If new output sections are created to hold orphaned input sections,
6388 then the linker must decide where to place these new output sections
6389 in relation to existing output sections. On most modern targets, the
6390 linker attempts to place orphan sections after sections of the same
6391 attribute, such as code vs data, loadable vs non-loadable, etc. If no
6392 sections with matching attributes are found, or your target lacks this
6393 support, the orphan section is placed at the end of the file.
6395 The command-line options @samp{--orphan-handling} and @samp{--unique}
6396 (@pxref{Options,,Command-line Options}) can be used to control which
6397 output sections an orphan is placed in.
6399 @node Location Counter
6400 @subsection The Location Counter
6403 @cindex location counter
6404 @cindex current output location
6405 The special linker variable @dfn{dot} @samp{.} always contains the
6406 current output location counter. Since the @code{.} always refers to a
6407 location in an output section, it may only appear in an expression
6408 within a @code{SECTIONS} command. The @code{.} symbol may appear
6409 anywhere that an ordinary symbol is allowed in an expression.
6412 Assigning a value to @code{.} will cause the location counter to be
6413 moved. This may be used to create holes in the output section. The
6414 location counter may not be moved backwards inside an output section,
6415 and may not be moved backwards outside of an output section if so
6416 doing creates areas with overlapping LMAs.
6432 In the previous example, the @samp{.text} section from @file{file1} is
6433 located at the beginning of the output section @samp{output}. It is
6434 followed by a 1000 byte gap. Then the @samp{.text} section from
6435 @file{file2} appears, also with a 1000 byte gap following before the
6436 @samp{.text} section from @file{file3}. The notation @samp{= 0x12345678}
6437 specifies what data to write in the gaps (@pxref{Output Section Fill}).
6439 @cindex dot inside sections
6440 Note: @code{.} actually refers to the byte offset from the start of the
6441 current containing object. Normally this is the @code{SECTIONS}
6442 statement, whose start address is 0, hence @code{.} can be used as an
6443 absolute address. If @code{.} is used inside a section description
6444 however, it refers to the byte offset from the start of that section,
6445 not an absolute address. Thus in a script like this:
6463 The @samp{.text} section will be assigned a starting address of 0x100
6464 and a size of exactly 0x200 bytes, even if there is not enough data in
6465 the @samp{.text} input sections to fill this area. (If there is too
6466 much data, an error will be produced because this would be an attempt to
6467 move @code{.} backwards). The @samp{.data} section will start at 0x500
6468 and it will have an extra 0x600 bytes worth of space after the end of
6469 the values from the @samp{.data} input sections and before the end of
6470 the @samp{.data} output section itself.
6472 @cindex dot outside sections
6473 Setting symbols to the value of the location counter outside of an
6474 output section statement can result in unexpected values if the linker
6475 needs to place orphan sections. For example, given the following:
6481 .text: @{ *(.text) @}
6485 .data: @{ *(.data) @}
6490 If the linker needs to place some input section, e.g. @code{.rodata},
6491 not mentioned in the script, it might choose to place that section
6492 between @code{.text} and @code{.data}. You might think the linker
6493 should place @code{.rodata} on the blank line in the above script, but
6494 blank lines are of no particular significance to the linker. As well,
6495 the linker doesn't associate the above symbol names with their
6496 sections. Instead, it assumes that all assignments or other
6497 statements belong to the previous output section, except for the
6498 special case of an assignment to @code{.}. I.e., the linker will
6499 place the orphan @code{.rodata} section as if the script was written
6506 .text: @{ *(.text) @}
6510 .rodata: @{ *(.rodata) @}
6511 .data: @{ *(.data) @}
6516 This may or may not be the script author's intention for the value of
6517 @code{start_of_data}. One way to influence the orphan section
6518 placement is to assign the location counter to itself, as the linker
6519 assumes that an assignment to @code{.} is setting the start address of
6520 a following output section and thus should be grouped with that
6521 section. So you could write:
6527 .text: @{ *(.text) @}
6532 .data: @{ *(.data) @}
6537 Now, the orphan @code{.rodata} section will be placed between
6538 @code{end_of_text} and @code{start_of_data}.
6542 @subsection Operators
6543 @cindex operators for arithmetic
6544 @cindex arithmetic operators
6545 @cindex precedence in expressions
6546 The linker recognizes the standard C set of arithmetic operators, with
6547 the standard bindings and precedence levels:
6550 @c END TEXI2ROFF-KILL
6552 precedence associativity Operators Notes
6558 5 left == != > < <= >=
6564 11 right &= += -= *= /= (2)
6568 (1) Prefix operators
6569 (2) @xref{Assignments}.
6573 \vskip \baselineskip
6574 %"lispnarrowing" is the extra indent used generally for smallexample
6575 \hskip\lispnarrowing\vbox{\offinterlineskip
6578 {\vrule#&\strut\hfil\ #\ \hfil&\vrule#&\strut\hfil\ #\ \hfil&\vrule#&\strut\hfil\ {\tt #}\ \hfil&\vrule#\cr
6579 height2pt&\omit&&\omit&&\omit&\cr
6580 &Precedence&& Associativity &&{\rm Operators}&\cr
6581 height2pt&\omit&&\omit&&\omit&\cr
6583 height2pt&\omit&&\omit&&\omit&\cr
6585 % '176 is tilde, '~' in tt font
6586 &1&&left&&\qquad- \char'176\ !\qquad\dag&\cr
6587 &2&&left&&* / \%&\cr
6590 &5&&left&&== != > < <= >=&\cr
6593 &8&&left&&{\&\&}&\cr
6596 &11&&right&&\qquad\&= += -= *= /=\qquad\ddag&\cr
6598 height2pt&\omit&&\omit&&\omit&\cr}
6603 @obeylines@parskip=0pt@parindent=0pt
6604 @dag@quad Prefix operators.
6605 @ddag@quad @xref{Assignments}.
6608 @c END TEXI2ROFF-KILL
6611 @subsection Evaluation
6612 @cindex lazy evaluation
6613 @cindex expression evaluation order
6614 The linker evaluates expressions lazily. It only computes the value of
6615 an expression when absolutely necessary.
6617 The linker needs some information, such as the value of the start
6618 address of the first section, and the origins and lengths of memory
6619 regions, in order to do any linking at all. These values are computed
6620 as soon as possible when the linker reads in the linker script.
6622 However, other values (such as symbol values) are not known or needed
6623 until after storage allocation. Such values are evaluated later, when
6624 other information (such as the sizes of output sections) is available
6625 for use in the symbol assignment expression.
6627 The sizes of sections cannot be known until after allocation, so
6628 assignments dependent upon these are not performed until after
6631 Some expressions, such as those depending upon the location counter
6632 @samp{.}, must be evaluated during section allocation.
6634 If the result of an expression is required, but the value is not
6635 available, then an error results. For example, a script like the
6641 .text 9+this_isnt_constant :
6647 will cause the error message @samp{non constant expression for initial
6650 @node Expression Section
6651 @subsection The Section of an Expression
6652 @cindex expression sections
6653 @cindex absolute expressions
6654 @cindex relative expressions
6655 @cindex absolute and relocatable symbols
6656 @cindex relocatable and absolute symbols
6657 @cindex symbols, relocatable and absolute
6658 Addresses and symbols may be section relative, or absolute. A section
6659 relative symbol is relocatable. If you request relocatable output
6660 using the @samp{-r} option, a further link operation may change the
6661 value of a section relative symbol. On the other hand, an absolute
6662 symbol will retain the same value throughout any further link
6665 Some terms in linker expressions are addresses. This is true of
6666 section relative symbols and for builtin functions that return an
6667 address, such as @code{ADDR}, @code{LOADADDR}, @code{ORIGIN} and
6668 @code{SEGMENT_START}. Other terms are simply numbers, or are builtin
6669 functions that return a non-address value, such as @code{LENGTH}.
6670 One complication is that unless you set @code{LD_FEATURE ("SANE_EXPR")}
6671 (@pxref{Miscellaneous Commands}), numbers and absolute symbols are treated
6672 differently depending on their location, for compatibility with older
6673 versions of @code{ld}. Expressions appearing outside an output
6674 section definition treat all numbers as absolute addresses.
6675 Expressions appearing inside an output section definition treat
6676 absolute symbols as numbers. If @code{LD_FEATURE ("SANE_EXPR")} is
6677 given, then absolute symbols and numbers are simply treated as numbers
6680 In the following simple example,
6687 __executable_start = 0x100;
6691 __data_start = 0x10;
6699 both @code{.} and @code{__executable_start} are set to the absolute
6700 address 0x100 in the first two assignments, then both @code{.} and
6701 @code{__data_start} are set to 0x10 relative to the @code{.data}
6702 section in the second two assignments.
6704 For expressions involving numbers, relative addresses and absolute
6705 addresses, ld follows these rules to evaluate terms:
6709 Unary operations on an absolute address or number, and binary
6710 operations on two absolute addresses or two numbers, or between one
6711 absolute address and a number, apply the operator to the value(s).
6713 Unary operations on a relative address, and binary operations on two
6714 relative addresses in the same section or between one relative address
6715 and a number, apply the operator to the offset part of the address(es).
6717 Other binary operations, that is, between two relative addresses not
6718 in the same section, or between a relative address and an absolute
6719 address, first convert any non-absolute term to an absolute address
6720 before applying the operator.
6723 The result section of each sub-expression is as follows:
6727 An operation involving only numbers results in a number.
6729 The result of comparisons, @samp{&&} and @samp{||} is also a number.
6731 The result of other binary arithmetic and logical operations on two
6732 relative addresses in the same section or two absolute addresses
6733 (after above conversions) is also a number when
6734 @code{LD_FEATURE ("SANE_EXPR")} or inside an output section definition
6735 but an absolute address otherwise.
6737 The result of other operations on relative addresses or one
6738 relative address and a number, is a relative address in the same
6739 section as the relative operand(s).
6741 The result of other operations on absolute addresses (after above
6742 conversions) is an absolute address.
6745 You can use the builtin function @code{ABSOLUTE} to force an expression
6746 to be absolute when it would otherwise be relative. For example, to
6747 create an absolute symbol set to the address of the end of the output
6748 section @samp{.data}:
6752 .data : @{ *(.data) _edata = ABSOLUTE(.); @}
6756 If @samp{ABSOLUTE} were not used, @samp{_edata} would be relative to the
6757 @samp{.data} section.
6759 Using @code{LOADADDR} also forces an expression absolute, since this
6760 particular builtin function returns an absolute address.
6762 @node Builtin Functions
6763 @subsection Builtin Functions
6764 @cindex functions in expressions
6765 The linker script language includes a number of builtin functions for
6766 use in linker script expressions.
6769 @item ABSOLUTE(@var{exp})
6770 @kindex ABSOLUTE(@var{exp})
6771 @cindex expression, absolute
6772 Return the absolute (non-relocatable, as opposed to non-negative) value
6773 of the expression @var{exp}. Primarily useful to assign an absolute
6774 value to a symbol within a section definition, where symbol values are
6775 normally section relative. @xref{Expression Section}.
6777 @item ADDR(@var{section})
6778 @kindex ADDR(@var{section})
6779 @cindex section address in expression
6780 Return the address (VMA) of the named @var{section}. Your
6781 script must previously have defined the location of that section. In
6782 the following example, @code{start_of_output_1}, @code{symbol_1} and
6783 @code{symbol_2} are assigned equivalent values, except that
6784 @code{symbol_1} will be relative to the @code{.output1} section while
6785 the other two will be absolute:
6791 start_of_output_1 = ABSOLUTE(.);
6796 symbol_1 = ADDR(.output1);
6797 symbol_2 = start_of_output_1;
6803 @item ALIGN(@var{align})
6804 @itemx ALIGN(@var{exp},@var{align})
6805 @kindex ALIGN(@var{align})
6806 @kindex ALIGN(@var{exp},@var{align})
6807 @cindex round up location counter
6808 @cindex align location counter
6809 @cindex round up expression
6810 @cindex align expression
6811 Return the location counter (@code{.}) or arbitrary expression aligned
6812 to the next @var{align} boundary. The single operand @code{ALIGN}
6813 doesn't change the value of the location counter---it just does
6814 arithmetic on it. The two operand @code{ALIGN} allows an arbitrary
6815 expression to be aligned upwards (@code{ALIGN(@var{align})} is
6816 equivalent to @code{ALIGN(ABSOLUTE(.), @var{align})}).
6818 Here is an example which aligns the output @code{.data} section to the
6819 next @code{0x2000} byte boundary after the preceding section and sets a
6820 variable within the section to the next @code{0x8000} boundary after the
6825 .data ALIGN(0x2000): @{
6827 variable = ALIGN(0x8000);
6833 The first use of @code{ALIGN} in this example specifies the location of
6834 a section because it is used as the optional @var{address} attribute of
6835 a section definition (@pxref{Output Section Address}). The second use
6836 of @code{ALIGN} is used to defines the value of a symbol.
6838 The builtin function @code{NEXT} is closely related to @code{ALIGN}.
6840 @item ALIGNOF(@var{section})
6841 @kindex ALIGNOF(@var{section})
6842 @cindex section alignment
6843 Return the alignment in bytes of the named @var{section}, if that section has
6844 been allocated. If the section has not been allocated when this is
6845 evaluated, the linker will report an error. In the following example,
6846 the alignment of the @code{.output} section is stored as the first
6847 value in that section.
6852 LONG (ALIGNOF (.output))
6859 @item BLOCK(@var{exp})
6860 @kindex BLOCK(@var{exp})
6861 This is a synonym for @code{ALIGN}, for compatibility with older linker
6862 scripts. It is most often seen when setting the address of an output
6865 @item DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN(@var{maxpagesize}, @var{commonpagesize})
6866 @kindex DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN(@var{maxpagesize}, @var{commonpagesize})
6867 This is equivalent to either
6869 (ALIGN(@var{maxpagesize}) + (. & (@var{maxpagesize} - 1)))
6873 (ALIGN(@var{maxpagesize})
6874 + ((. + @var{commonpagesize} - 1) & (@var{maxpagesize} - @var{commonpagesize})))
6877 depending on whether the latter uses fewer @var{commonpagesize} sized pages
6878 for the data segment (area between the result of this expression and
6879 @code{DATA_SEGMENT_END}) than the former or not.
6880 If the latter form is used, it means @var{commonpagesize} bytes of runtime
6881 memory will be saved at the expense of up to @var{commonpagesize} wasted
6882 bytes in the on-disk file.
6884 This expression can only be used directly in @code{SECTIONS} commands, not in
6885 any output section descriptions and only once in the linker script.
6886 @var{commonpagesize} should be less or equal to @var{maxpagesize} and should
6887 be the system page size the object wants to be optimized for while still
6888 running on system page sizes up to @var{maxpagesize}. Note however
6889 that @samp{-z relro} protection will not be effective if the system
6890 page size is larger than @var{commonpagesize}.
6895 . = DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN(0x10000, 0x2000);
6898 @item DATA_SEGMENT_END(@var{exp})
6899 @kindex DATA_SEGMENT_END(@var{exp})
6900 This defines the end of data segment for @code{DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN}
6901 evaluation purposes.
6904 . = DATA_SEGMENT_END(.);
6907 @item DATA_SEGMENT_RELRO_END(@var{offset}, @var{exp})
6908 @kindex DATA_SEGMENT_RELRO_END(@var{offset}, @var{exp})
6909 This defines the end of the @code{PT_GNU_RELRO} segment when
6910 @samp{-z relro} option is used.
6911 When @samp{-z relro} option is not present, @code{DATA_SEGMENT_RELRO_END}
6912 does nothing, otherwise @code{DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN} is padded so that
6913 @var{exp} + @var{offset} is aligned to the @var{commonpagesize}
6914 argument given to @code{DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN}. If present in the linker
6915 script, it must be placed between @code{DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN} and
6916 @code{DATA_SEGMENT_END}. Evaluates to the second argument plus any
6917 padding needed at the end of the @code{PT_GNU_RELRO} segment due to
6921 . = DATA_SEGMENT_RELRO_END(24, .);
6924 @item DEFINED(@var{symbol})
6925 @kindex DEFINED(@var{symbol})
6926 @cindex symbol defaults
6927 Return 1 if @var{symbol} is in the linker global symbol table and is
6928 defined before the statement using DEFINED in the script, otherwise
6929 return 0. You can use this function to provide
6930 default values for symbols. For example, the following script fragment
6931 shows how to set a global symbol @samp{begin} to the first location in
6932 the @samp{.text} section---but if a symbol called @samp{begin} already
6933 existed, its value is preserved:
6939 begin = DEFINED(begin) ? begin : . ;
6947 @item LENGTH(@var{memory})
6948 @kindex LENGTH(@var{memory})
6949 Return the length of the memory region named @var{memory}.
6951 @item LOADADDR(@var{section})
6952 @kindex LOADADDR(@var{section})
6953 @cindex section load address in expression
6954 Return the absolute LMA of the named @var{section}. (@pxref{Output
6957 @item LOG2CEIL(@var{exp})
6958 @kindex LOG2CEIL(@var{exp})
6959 Return the binary logarithm of @var{exp} rounded towards infinity.
6960 @code{LOG2CEIL(0)} returns 0.
6963 @item MAX(@var{exp1}, @var{exp2})
6964 Returns the maximum of @var{exp1} and @var{exp2}.
6967 @item MIN(@var{exp1}, @var{exp2})
6968 Returns the minimum of @var{exp1} and @var{exp2}.
6970 @item NEXT(@var{exp})
6971 @kindex NEXT(@var{exp})
6972 @cindex unallocated address, next
6973 Return the next unallocated address that is a multiple of @var{exp}.
6974 This function is closely related to @code{ALIGN(@var{exp})}; unless you
6975 use the @code{MEMORY} command to define discontinuous memory for the
6976 output file, the two functions are equivalent.
6978 @item ORIGIN(@var{memory})
6979 @kindex ORIGIN(@var{memory})
6980 Return the origin of the memory region named @var{memory}.
6982 @item SEGMENT_START(@var{segment}, @var{default})
6983 @kindex SEGMENT_START(@var{segment}, @var{default})
6984 Return the base address of the named @var{segment}. If an explicit
6985 value has already been given for this segment (with a command-line
6986 @samp{-T} option) then that value will be returned otherwise the value
6987 will be @var{default}. At present, the @samp{-T} command-line option
6988 can only be used to set the base address for the ``text'', ``data'', and
6989 ``bss'' sections, but you can use @code{SEGMENT_START} with any segment
6992 @item SIZEOF(@var{section})
6993 @kindex SIZEOF(@var{section})
6994 @cindex section size
6995 Return the size in bytes of the named @var{section}, if that section has
6996 been allocated. If the section has not been allocated when this is
6997 evaluated, the linker will report an error. In the following example,
6998 @code{symbol_1} and @code{symbol_2} are assigned identical values:
7007 symbol_1 = .end - .start ;
7008 symbol_2 = SIZEOF(.output);
7013 @item SIZEOF_HEADERS
7014 @itemx sizeof_headers
7015 @kindex SIZEOF_HEADERS
7017 Return the size in bytes of the output file's headers. This is
7018 information which appears at the start of the output file. You can use
7019 this number when setting the start address of the first section, if you
7020 choose, to facilitate paging.
7022 @cindex not enough room for program headers
7023 @cindex program headers, not enough room
7024 When producing an ELF output file, if the linker script uses the
7025 @code{SIZEOF_HEADERS} builtin function, the linker must compute the
7026 number of program headers before it has determined all the section
7027 addresses and sizes. If the linker later discovers that it needs
7028 additional program headers, it will report an error @samp{not enough
7029 room for program headers}. To avoid this error, you must avoid using
7030 the @code{SIZEOF_HEADERS} function, or you must rework your linker
7031 script to avoid forcing the linker to use additional program headers, or
7032 you must define the program headers yourself using the @code{PHDRS}
7033 command (@pxref{PHDRS}).
7036 @node Implicit Linker Scripts
7037 @section Implicit Linker Scripts
7038 @cindex implicit linker scripts
7039 If you specify a linker input file which the linker can not recognize as
7040 an object file or an archive file, it will try to read the file as a
7041 linker script. If the file can not be parsed as a linker script, the
7042 linker will report an error.
7044 An implicit linker script will not replace the default linker script.
7046 Typically an implicit linker script would contain only symbol
7047 assignments, or the @code{INPUT}, @code{GROUP}, or @code{VERSION}
7050 Any input files read because of an implicit linker script will be read
7051 at the position in the command line where the implicit linker script was
7052 read. This can affect archive searching.
7055 @chapter Linker Plugins
7058 @cindex linker plugins
7059 The linker can use dynamically loaded plugins to modify its behavior.
7060 For example, the link-time optimization feature that some compilers
7061 support is implemented with a linker plugin.
7063 Currently there is only one plugin shipped by default, but more may
7064 be added here later.
7067 * libdep Plugin:: Static Library Dependencies Plugin
7071 @section Static Library Dependencies Plugin
7072 @cindex static library dependencies
7073 Originally, static libraries were contained in an archive file consisting
7074 just of a collection of relocatable object files. Later they evolved to
7075 optionally include a symbol table, to assist in finding the needed objects
7076 within a library. There their evolution ended, and dynamic libraries
7079 One useful feature of dynamic libraries was that, more than just collecting
7080 multiple objects into a single file, they also included a list of their
7081 dependencies, such that one could specify just the name of a single dynamic
7082 library at link time, and all of its dependencies would be implicitly
7083 referenced as well. But static libraries lacked this feature, so if a
7084 link invocation was switched from using dynamic libraries to static
7085 libraries, the link command would usually fail unless it was rewritten to
7086 explicitly list the dependencies of the static library.
7088 The GNU @command{ar} utility now supports a @option{--record-libdeps} option
7089 to embed dependency lists into static libraries as well, and the @file{libdep}
7090 plugin may be used to read this dependency information at link time. The
7091 dependency information is stored as a single string, carrying @option{-l}
7092 and @option{-L} arguments as they would normally appear in a linker
7093 command line. As such, the information can be written with any text
7094 utility and stored into any archive, even if GNU @command{ar} is not
7095 being used to create the archive. The information is stored in an
7096 archive member named @samp{__.LIBDEP}.
7098 For example, given a library @file{libssl.a} that depends on another
7099 library @file{libcrypto.a} which may be found in @file{/usr/local/lib},
7100 the @samp{__.LIBDEP} member of @file{libssl.a} would contain
7103 -L/usr/local/lib -lcrypto
7107 @node Machine Dependent
7108 @chapter Machine Dependent Features
7110 @cindex machine dependencies
7111 @command{ld} has additional features on some platforms; the following
7112 sections describe them. Machines where @command{ld} has no additional
7113 functionality are not listed.
7117 * H8/300:: @command{ld} and the H8/300
7120 * M68HC11/68HC12:: @code{ld} and the Motorola 68HC11 and 68HC12 families
7123 * ARM:: @command{ld} and the ARM family
7126 * HPPA ELF32:: @command{ld} and HPPA 32-bit ELF
7129 * M68K:: @command{ld} and the Motorola 68K family
7132 * MIPS:: @command{ld} and the MIPS family
7135 * MMIX:: @command{ld} and MMIX
7138 * MSP430:: @command{ld} and MSP430
7141 * NDS32:: @command{ld} and NDS32
7144 * Nios II:: @command{ld} and the Altera Nios II
7147 * PowerPC ELF32:: @command{ld} and PowerPC 32-bit ELF Support
7150 * PowerPC64 ELF64:: @command{ld} and PowerPC64 64-bit ELF Support
7153 * S/390 ELF:: @command{ld} and S/390 ELF Support
7156 * SPU ELF:: @command{ld} and SPU ELF Support
7159 * TI COFF:: @command{ld} and TI COFF
7162 * WIN32:: @command{ld} and WIN32 (cygwin/mingw)
7165 * Xtensa:: @command{ld} and Xtensa Processors
7176 @section @command{ld} and the H8/300
7178 @cindex H8/300 support
7179 For the H8/300, @command{ld} can perform these global optimizations when
7180 you specify the @samp{--relax} command-line option.
7183 @cindex relaxing on H8/300
7184 @item relaxing address modes
7185 @command{ld} finds all @code{jsr} and @code{jmp} instructions whose
7186 targets are within eight bits, and turns them into eight-bit
7187 program-counter relative @code{bsr} and @code{bra} instructions,
7190 @cindex synthesizing on H8/300
7191 @item synthesizing instructions
7192 @c FIXME: specifically mov.b, or any mov instructions really? -> mov.b only, at least on H8, H8H, H8S
7193 @command{ld} finds all @code{mov.b} instructions which use the
7194 sixteen-bit absolute address form, but refer to the top
7195 page of memory, and changes them to use the eight-bit address form.
7196 (That is: the linker turns @samp{mov.b @code{@@}@var{aa}:16} into
7197 @samp{mov.b @code{@@}@var{aa}:8} whenever the address @var{aa} is in the
7198 top page of memory).
7200 @command{ld} finds all @code{mov} instructions which use the register
7201 indirect with 32-bit displacement addressing mode, but use a small
7202 displacement inside 16-bit displacement range, and changes them to use
7203 the 16-bit displacement form. (That is: the linker turns @samp{mov.b
7204 @code{@@}@var{d}:32,ERx} into @samp{mov.b @code{@@}@var{d}:16,ERx}
7205 whenever the displacement @var{d} is in the 16 bit signed integer
7206 range. Only implemented in ELF-format ld).
7208 @item bit manipulation instructions
7209 @command{ld} finds all bit manipulation instructions like @code{band, bclr,
7210 biand, bild, bior, bist, bixor, bld, bnot, bor, bset, bst, btst, bxor}
7211 which use 32 bit and 16 bit absolute address form, but refer to the top
7212 page of memory, and changes them to use the 8 bit address form.
7213 (That is: the linker turns @samp{bset #xx:3,@code{@@}@var{aa}:32} into
7214 @samp{bset #xx:3,@code{@@}@var{aa}:8} whenever the address @var{aa} is in
7215 the top page of memory).
7217 @item system control instructions
7218 @command{ld} finds all @code{ldc.w, stc.w} instructions which use the
7219 32 bit absolute address form, but refer to the top page of memory, and
7220 changes them to use 16 bit address form.
7221 (That is: the linker turns @samp{ldc.w @code{@@}@var{aa}:32,ccr} into
7222 @samp{ldc.w @code{@@}@var{aa}:16,ccr} whenever the address @var{aa} is in
7223 the top page of memory).
7233 @c This stuff is pointless to say unless you're especially concerned
7234 @c with Renesas chips; don't enable it for generic case, please.
7236 @chapter @command{ld} and Other Renesas Chips
7238 @command{ld} also supports the Renesas (formerly Hitachi) H8/300H,
7239 H8/500, and SH chips. No special features, commands, or command-line
7240 options are required for these chips.
7254 @node M68HC11/68HC12
7255 @section @command{ld} and the Motorola 68HC11 and 68HC12 families
7257 @cindex M68HC11 and 68HC12 support
7259 @subsection Linker Relaxation
7261 For the Motorola 68HC11, @command{ld} can perform these global
7262 optimizations when you specify the @samp{--relax} command-line option.
7265 @cindex relaxing on M68HC11
7266 @item relaxing address modes
7267 @command{ld} finds all @code{jsr} and @code{jmp} instructions whose
7268 targets are within eight bits, and turns them into eight-bit
7269 program-counter relative @code{bsr} and @code{bra} instructions,
7272 @command{ld} also looks at all 16-bit extended addressing modes and
7273 transforms them in a direct addressing mode when the address is in
7274 page 0 (between 0 and 0x0ff).
7276 @item relaxing gcc instruction group
7277 When @command{gcc} is called with @option{-mrelax}, it can emit group
7278 of instructions that the linker can optimize to use a 68HC11 direct
7279 addressing mode. These instructions consists of @code{bclr} or
7280 @code{bset} instructions.
7284 @subsection Trampoline Generation
7286 @cindex trampoline generation on M68HC11
7287 @cindex trampoline generation on M68HC12
7288 For 68HC11 and 68HC12, @command{ld} can generate trampoline code to
7289 call a far function using a normal @code{jsr} instruction. The linker
7290 will also change the relocation to some far function to use the
7291 trampoline address instead of the function address. This is typically the
7292 case when a pointer to a function is taken. The pointer will in fact
7293 point to the function trampoline.
7301 @section @command{ld} and the ARM family
7303 @cindex ARM interworking support
7304 @kindex --support-old-code
7305 For the ARM, @command{ld} will generate code stubs to allow functions calls
7306 between ARM and Thumb code. These stubs only work with code that has
7307 been compiled and assembled with the @samp{-mthumb-interwork} command
7308 line option. If it is necessary to link with old ARM object files or
7309 libraries, which have not been compiled with the -mthumb-interwork
7310 option then the @samp{--support-old-code} command-line switch should be
7311 given to the linker. This will make it generate larger stub functions
7312 which will work with non-interworking aware ARM code. Note, however,
7313 the linker does not support generating stubs for function calls to
7314 non-interworking aware Thumb code.
7316 @cindex thumb entry point
7317 @cindex entry point, thumb
7318 @kindex --thumb-entry=@var{entry}
7319 The @samp{--thumb-entry} switch is a duplicate of the generic
7320 @samp{--entry} switch, in that it sets the program's starting address.
7321 But it also sets the bottom bit of the address, so that it can be
7322 branched to using a BX instruction, and the program will start
7323 executing in Thumb mode straight away.
7325 @cindex PE import table prefixing
7326 @kindex --use-nul-prefixed-import-tables
7327 The @samp{--use-nul-prefixed-import-tables} switch is specifying, that
7328 the import tables idata4 and idata5 have to be generated with a zero
7329 element prefix for import libraries. This is the old style to generate
7330 import tables. By default this option is turned off.
7334 The @samp{--be8} switch instructs @command{ld} to generate BE8 format
7335 executables. This option is only valid when linking big-endian
7336 objects - ie ones which have been assembled with the @option{-EB}
7337 option. The resulting image will contain big-endian data and
7341 @kindex --target1-rel
7342 @kindex --target1-abs
7343 The @samp{R_ARM_TARGET1} relocation is typically used for entries in the
7344 @samp{.init_array} section. It is interpreted as either @samp{R_ARM_REL32}
7345 or @samp{R_ARM_ABS32}, depending on the target. The @samp{--target1-rel}
7346 and @samp{--target1-abs} switches override the default.
7349 @kindex --target2=@var{type}
7350 The @samp{--target2=type} switch overrides the default definition of the
7351 @samp{R_ARM_TARGET2} relocation. Valid values for @samp{type}, their
7352 meanings, and target defaults are as follows:
7355 @samp{R_ARM_REL32} (arm*-*-elf, arm*-*-eabi)
7359 @samp{R_ARM_GOT_PREL} (arm*-*-linux, arm*-*-*bsd)
7364 The @samp{R_ARM_V4BX} relocation (defined by the ARM AAELF
7365 specification) enables objects compiled for the ARMv4 architecture to be
7366 interworking-safe when linked with other objects compiled for ARMv4t, but
7367 also allows pure ARMv4 binaries to be built from the same ARMv4 objects.
7369 In the latter case, the switch @option{--fix-v4bx} must be passed to the
7370 linker, which causes v4t @code{BX rM} instructions to be rewritten as
7371 @code{MOV PC,rM}, since v4 processors do not have a @code{BX} instruction.
7373 In the former case, the switch should not be used, and @samp{R_ARM_V4BX}
7374 relocations are ignored.
7376 @cindex FIX_V4BX_INTERWORKING
7377 @kindex --fix-v4bx-interworking
7378 Replace @code{BX rM} instructions identified by @samp{R_ARM_V4BX}
7379 relocations with a branch to the following veneer:
7387 This allows generation of libraries/applications that work on ARMv4 cores
7388 and are still interworking safe. Note that the above veneer clobbers the
7389 condition flags, so may cause incorrect program behavior in rare cases.
7393 The @samp{--use-blx} switch enables the linker to use ARM/Thumb
7394 BLX instructions (available on ARMv5t and above) in various
7395 situations. Currently it is used to perform calls via the PLT from Thumb
7396 code using BLX rather than using BX and a mode-switching stub before
7397 each PLT entry. This should lead to such calls executing slightly faster.
7399 @cindex VFP11_DENORM_FIX
7400 @kindex --vfp11-denorm-fix
7401 The @samp{--vfp11-denorm-fix} switch enables a link-time workaround for a
7402 bug in certain VFP11 coprocessor hardware, which sometimes allows
7403 instructions with denorm operands (which must be handled by support code)
7404 to have those operands overwritten by subsequent instructions before
7405 the support code can read the intended values.
7407 The bug may be avoided in scalar mode if you allow at least one
7408 intervening instruction between a VFP11 instruction which uses a register
7409 and another instruction which writes to the same register, or at least two
7410 intervening instructions if vector mode is in use. The bug only affects
7411 full-compliance floating-point mode: you do not need this workaround if
7412 you are using "runfast" mode. Please contact ARM for further details.
7414 If you know you are using buggy VFP11 hardware, you can
7415 enable this workaround by specifying the linker option
7416 @samp{--vfp-denorm-fix=scalar} if you are using the VFP11 scalar
7417 mode only, or @samp{--vfp-denorm-fix=vector} if you are using
7418 vector mode (the latter also works for scalar code). The default is
7419 @samp{--vfp-denorm-fix=none}.
7421 If the workaround is enabled, instructions are scanned for
7422 potentially-troublesome sequences, and a veneer is created for each
7423 such sequence which may trigger the erratum. The veneer consists of the
7424 first instruction of the sequence and a branch back to the subsequent
7425 instruction. The original instruction is then replaced with a branch to
7426 the veneer. The extra cycles required to call and return from the veneer
7427 are sufficient to avoid the erratum in both the scalar and vector cases.
7429 @cindex ARM1176 erratum workaround
7430 @kindex --fix-arm1176
7431 @kindex --no-fix-arm1176
7432 The @samp{--fix-arm1176} switch enables a link-time workaround for an erratum
7433 in certain ARM1176 processors. The workaround is enabled by default if you
7434 are targeting ARM v6 (excluding ARM v6T2) or earlier. It can be disabled
7435 unconditionally by specifying @samp{--no-fix-arm1176}.
7437 Further information is available in the ``ARM1176JZ-S and ARM1176JZF-S
7438 Programmer Advice Notice'' available on the ARM documentation website at:
7439 http://infocenter.arm.com/.
7441 @cindex STM32L4xx erratum workaround
7442 @kindex --fix-stm32l4xx-629360
7444 The @samp{--fix-stm32l4xx-629360} switch enables a link-time
7445 workaround for a bug in the bus matrix / memory controller for some of
7446 the STM32 Cortex-M4 based products (STM32L4xx). When accessing
7447 off-chip memory via the affected bus for bus reads of 9 words or more,
7448 the bus can generate corrupt data and/or abort. These are only
7449 core-initiated accesses (not DMA), and might affect any access:
7450 integer loads such as LDM, POP and floating-point loads such as VLDM,
7451 VPOP. Stores are not affected.
7453 The bug can be avoided by splitting memory accesses into the
7454 necessary chunks to keep bus reads below 8 words.
7456 The workaround is not enabled by default, this is equivalent to use
7457 @samp{--fix-stm32l4xx-629360=none}. If you know you are using buggy
7458 STM32L4xx hardware, you can enable the workaround by specifying the
7459 linker option @samp{--fix-stm32l4xx-629360}, or the equivalent
7460 @samp{--fix-stm32l4xx-629360=default}.
7462 If the workaround is enabled, instructions are scanned for
7463 potentially-troublesome sequences, and a veneer is created for each
7464 such sequence which may trigger the erratum. The veneer consists in a
7465 replacement sequence emulating the behaviour of the original one and a
7466 branch back to the subsequent instruction. The original instruction is
7467 then replaced with a branch to the veneer.
7469 The workaround does not always preserve the memory access order for
7470 the LDMDB instruction, when the instruction loads the PC.
7472 The workaround is not able to handle problematic instructions when
7473 they are in the middle of an IT block, since a branch is not allowed
7474 there. In that case, the linker reports a warning and no replacement
7477 The workaround is not able to replace problematic instructions with a
7478 PC-relative branch instruction if the @samp{.text} section is too
7479 large. In that case, when the branch that replaces the original code
7480 cannot be encoded, the linker reports a warning and no replacement
7483 @cindex NO_ENUM_SIZE_WARNING
7484 @kindex --no-enum-size-warning
7485 The @option{--no-enum-size-warning} switch prevents the linker from
7486 warning when linking object files that specify incompatible EABI
7487 enumeration size attributes. For example, with this switch enabled,
7488 linking of an object file using 32-bit enumeration values with another
7489 using enumeration values fitted into the smallest possible space will
7492 @cindex NO_WCHAR_SIZE_WARNING
7493 @kindex --no-wchar-size-warning
7494 The @option{--no-wchar-size-warning} switch prevents the linker from
7495 warning when linking object files that specify incompatible EABI
7496 @code{wchar_t} size attributes. For example, with this switch enabled,
7497 linking of an object file using 32-bit @code{wchar_t} values with another
7498 using 16-bit @code{wchar_t} values will not be diagnosed.
7501 @kindex --pic-veneer
7502 The @samp{--pic-veneer} switch makes the linker use PIC sequences for
7503 ARM/Thumb interworking veneers, even if the rest of the binary
7504 is not PIC. This avoids problems on uClinux targets where
7505 @samp{--emit-relocs} is used to generate relocatable binaries.
7507 @cindex STUB_GROUP_SIZE
7508 @kindex --stub-group-size=@var{N}
7509 The linker will automatically generate and insert small sequences of
7510 code into a linked ARM ELF executable whenever an attempt is made to
7511 perform a function call to a symbol that is too far away. The
7512 placement of these sequences of instructions - called stubs - is
7513 controlled by the command-line option @option{--stub-group-size=N}.
7514 The placement is important because a poor choice can create a need for
7515 duplicate stubs, increasing the code size. The linker will try to
7516 group stubs together in order to reduce interruptions to the flow of
7517 code, but it needs guidance as to how big these groups should be and
7518 where they should be placed.
7520 The value of @samp{N}, the parameter to the
7521 @option{--stub-group-size=} option controls where the stub groups are
7522 placed. If it is negative then all stubs are placed after the first
7523 branch that needs them. If it is positive then the stubs can be
7524 placed either before or after the branches that need them. If the
7525 value of @samp{N} is 1 (either +1 or -1) then the linker will choose
7526 exactly where to place groups of stubs, using its built in heuristics.
7527 A value of @samp{N} greater than 1 (or smaller than -1) tells the
7528 linker that a single group of stubs can service at most @samp{N} bytes
7529 from the input sections.
7531 The default, if @option{--stub-group-size=} is not specified, is
7534 Farcalls stubs insertion is fully supported for the ARM-EABI target
7535 only, because it relies on object files properties not present
7538 @cindex Cortex-A8 erratum workaround
7539 @kindex --fix-cortex-a8
7540 @kindex --no-fix-cortex-a8
7541 The @samp{--fix-cortex-a8} switch enables a link-time workaround for an erratum in certain Cortex-A8 processors. The workaround is enabled by default if you are targeting the ARM v7-A architecture profile. It can be enabled otherwise by specifying @samp{--fix-cortex-a8}, or disabled unconditionally by specifying @samp{--no-fix-cortex-a8}.
7543 The erratum only affects Thumb-2 code. Please contact ARM for further details.
7545 @cindex Cortex-A53 erratum 835769 workaround
7546 @kindex --fix-cortex-a53-835769
7547 @kindex --no-fix-cortex-a53-835769
7548 The @samp{--fix-cortex-a53-835769} switch enables a link-time workaround for erratum 835769 present on certain early revisions of Cortex-A53 processors. The workaround is disabled by default. It can be enabled by specifying @samp{--fix-cortex-a53-835769}, or disabled unconditionally by specifying @samp{--no-fix-cortex-a53-835769}.
7550 Please contact ARM for further details.
7552 @kindex --merge-exidx-entries
7553 @kindex --no-merge-exidx-entries
7554 @cindex Merging exidx entries
7555 The @samp{--no-merge-exidx-entries} switch disables the merging of adjacent exidx entries in debuginfo.
7558 @cindex 32-bit PLT entries
7559 The @samp{--long-plt} option enables the use of 16 byte PLT entries
7560 which support up to 4Gb of code. The default is to use 12 byte PLT
7561 entries which only support 512Mb of code.
7563 @kindex --no-apply-dynamic-relocs
7564 @cindex AArch64 rela addend
7565 The @samp{--no-apply-dynamic-relocs} option makes AArch64 linker do not apply
7566 link-time values for dynamic relocations.
7568 @cindex Placement of SG veneers
7569 All SG veneers are placed in the special output section @code{.gnu.sgstubs}.
7570 Its start address must be set, either with the command-line option
7571 @samp{--section-start} or in a linker script, to indicate where to place these
7574 @kindex --cmse-implib
7575 @cindex Secure gateway import library
7576 The @samp{--cmse-implib} option requests that the import libraries
7577 specified by the @samp{--out-implib} and @samp{--in-implib} options are
7578 secure gateway import libraries, suitable for linking a non-secure
7579 executable against secure code as per ARMv8-M Security Extensions.
7581 @kindex --in-implib=@var{file}
7582 @cindex Input import library
7583 The @samp{--in-implib=file} specifies an input import library whose symbols
7584 must keep the same address in the executable being produced. A warning is
7585 given if no @samp{--out-implib} is given but new symbols have been introduced
7586 in the executable that should be listed in its import library. Otherwise, if
7587 @samp{--out-implib} is specified, the symbols are added to the output import
7588 library. A warning is also given if some symbols present in the input import
7589 library have disappeared from the executable. This option is only effective
7590 for Secure Gateway import libraries, ie. when @samp{--cmse-implib} is
7604 @section @command{ld} and HPPA 32-bit ELF Support
7605 @cindex HPPA multiple sub-space stubs
7606 @kindex --multi-subspace
7607 When generating a shared library, @command{ld} will by default generate
7608 import stubs suitable for use with a single sub-space application.
7609 The @samp{--multi-subspace} switch causes @command{ld} to generate export
7610 stubs, and different (larger) import stubs suitable for use with
7611 multiple sub-spaces.
7613 @cindex HPPA stub grouping
7614 @kindex --stub-group-size=@var{N}
7615 Long branch stubs and import/export stubs are placed by @command{ld} in
7616 stub sections located between groups of input sections.
7617 @samp{--stub-group-size} specifies the maximum size of a group of input
7618 sections handled by one stub section. Since branch offsets are signed,
7619 a stub section may serve two groups of input sections, one group before
7620 the stub section, and one group after it. However, when using
7621 conditional branches that require stubs, it may be better (for branch
7622 prediction) that stub sections only serve one group of input sections.
7623 A negative value for @samp{N} chooses this scheme, ensuring that
7624 branches to stubs always use a negative offset. Two special values of
7625 @samp{N} are recognized, @samp{1} and @samp{-1}. These both instruct
7626 @command{ld} to automatically size input section groups for the branch types
7627 detected, with the same behaviour regarding stub placement as other
7628 positive or negative values of @samp{N} respectively.
7630 Note that @samp{--stub-group-size} does not split input sections. A
7631 single input section larger than the group size specified will of course
7632 create a larger group (of one section). If input sections are too
7633 large, it may not be possible for a branch to reach its stub.
7646 @section @command{ld} and the Motorola 68K family
7648 @cindex Motorola 68K GOT generation
7649 @kindex --got=@var{type}
7650 The @samp{--got=@var{type}} option lets you choose the GOT generation scheme.
7651 The choices are @samp{single}, @samp{negative}, @samp{multigot} and
7652 @samp{target}. When @samp{target} is selected the linker chooses
7653 the default GOT generation scheme for the current target.
7654 @samp{single} tells the linker to generate a single GOT with
7655 entries only at non-negative offsets.
7656 @samp{negative} instructs the linker to generate a single GOT with
7657 entries at both negative and positive offsets. Not all environments
7659 @samp{multigot} allows the linker to generate several GOTs in the
7660 output file. All GOT references from a single input object
7661 file access the same GOT, but references from different input object
7662 files might access different GOTs. Not all environments support such GOTs.
7675 @section @command{ld} and the MIPS family
7677 @cindex MIPS microMIPS instruction choice selection
7680 The @samp{--insn32} and @samp{--no-insn32} options control the choice of
7681 microMIPS instructions used in code generated by the linker, such as that
7682 in the PLT or lazy binding stubs, or in relaxation. If @samp{--insn32} is
7683 used, then the linker only uses 32-bit instruction encodings. By default
7684 or if @samp{--no-insn32} is used, all instruction encodings are used,
7685 including 16-bit ones where possible.
7687 @cindex MIPS branch relocation check control
7688 @kindex --ignore-branch-isa
7689 @kindex --no-ignore-branch-isa
7690 The @samp{--ignore-branch-isa} and @samp{--no-ignore-branch-isa} options
7691 control branch relocation checks for invalid ISA mode transitions. If
7692 @samp{--ignore-branch-isa} is used, then the linker accepts any branch
7693 relocations and any ISA mode transition required is lost in relocation
7694 calculation, except for some cases of @code{BAL} instructions which meet
7695 relaxation conditions and are converted to equivalent @code{JALX}
7696 instructions as the associated relocation is calculated. By default
7697 or if @samp{--no-ignore-branch-isa} is used a check is made causing
7698 the loss of an ISA mode transition to produce an error.
7711 @section @code{ld} and MMIX
7712 For MMIX, there is a choice of generating @code{ELF} object files or
7713 @code{mmo} object files when linking. The simulator @code{mmix}
7714 understands the @code{mmo} format. The binutils @code{objcopy} utility
7715 can translate between the two formats.
7717 There is one special section, the @samp{.MMIX.reg_contents} section.
7718 Contents in this section is assumed to correspond to that of global
7719 registers, and symbols referring to it are translated to special symbols,
7720 equal to registers. In a final link, the start address of the
7721 @samp{.MMIX.reg_contents} section corresponds to the first allocated
7722 global register multiplied by 8. Register @code{$255} is not included in
7723 this section; it is always set to the program entry, which is at the
7724 symbol @code{Main} for @code{mmo} files.
7726 Global symbols with the prefix @code{__.MMIX.start.}, for example
7727 @code{__.MMIX.start..text} and @code{__.MMIX.start..data} are special.
7728 The default linker script uses these to set the default start address
7731 Initial and trailing multiples of zero-valued 32-bit words in a section,
7732 are left out from an mmo file.
7745 @section @code{ld} and MSP430
7746 For the MSP430 it is possible to select the MPU architecture. The flag @samp{-m [mpu type]}
7747 will select an appropriate linker script for selected MPU type. (To get a list of known MPUs
7748 just pass @samp{-m help} option to the linker).
7750 @cindex MSP430 extra sections
7751 The linker will recognize some extra sections which are MSP430 specific:
7754 @item @samp{.vectors}
7755 Defines a portion of ROM where interrupt vectors located.
7757 @item @samp{.bootloader}
7758 Defines the bootloader portion of the ROM (if applicable). Any code
7759 in this section will be uploaded to the MPU.
7761 @item @samp{.infomem}
7762 Defines an information memory section (if applicable). Any code in
7763 this section will be uploaded to the MPU.
7765 @item @samp{.infomemnobits}
7766 This is the same as the @samp{.infomem} section except that any code
7767 in this section will not be uploaded to the MPU.
7769 @item @samp{.noinit}
7770 Denotes a portion of RAM located above @samp{.bss} section.
7772 The last two sections are used by gcc.
7776 @cindex MSP430 Options
7777 @kindex --code-region
7778 @item --code-region=[either,lower,upper,none]
7779 This will transform .text* sections to [either,lower,upper].text* sections. The
7780 argument passed to GCC for -mcode-region is propagated to the linker
7783 @kindex --data-region
7784 @item --data-region=[either,lower,upper,none]
7785 This will transform .data*, .bss* and .rodata* sections to
7786 [either,lower,upper].[data,bss,rodata]* sections. The argument passed to GCC
7787 for -mdata-region is propagated to the linker using this option.
7789 @kindex --disable-sec-transformation
7790 @item --disable-sec-transformation
7791 Prevent the transformation of sections as specified by the @code{--code-region}
7792 and @code{--data-region} options.
7793 This is useful if you are compiling and linking using a single call to the GCC
7794 wrapper, and want to compile the source files using -m[code,data]-region but
7795 not transform the sections for prebuilt libraries and objects.
7809 @section @code{ld} and NDS32
7810 @kindex relaxing on NDS32
7811 For NDS32, there are some options to select relaxation behavior. The linker
7812 relaxes objects according to these options.
7815 @item @samp{--m[no-]fp-as-gp}
7816 Disable/enable fp-as-gp relaxation.
7818 @item @samp{--mexport-symbols=FILE}
7819 Exporting symbols and their address into FILE as linker script.
7821 @item @samp{--m[no-]ex9}
7822 Disable/enable link-time EX9 relaxation.
7824 @item @samp{--mexport-ex9=FILE}
7825 Export the EX9 table after linking.
7827 @item @samp{--mimport-ex9=FILE}
7828 Import the Ex9 table for EX9 relaxation.
7830 @item @samp{--mupdate-ex9}
7831 Update the existing EX9 table.
7833 @item @samp{--mex9-limit=NUM}
7834 Maximum number of entries in the ex9 table.
7836 @item @samp{--mex9-loop-aware}
7837 Avoid generating the EX9 instruction inside the loop.
7839 @item @samp{--m[no-]ifc}
7840 Disable/enable the link-time IFC optimization.
7842 @item @samp{--mifc-loop-aware}
7843 Avoid generating the IFC instruction inside the loop.
7857 @section @command{ld} and the Altera Nios II
7858 @cindex Nios II call relaxation
7859 @kindex --relax on Nios II
7861 Call and immediate jump instructions on Nios II processors are limited to
7862 transferring control to addresses in the same 256MB memory segment,
7863 which may result in @command{ld} giving
7864 @samp{relocation truncated to fit} errors with very large programs.
7865 The command-line option @option{--relax} enables the generation of
7866 trampolines that can access the entire 32-bit address space for calls
7867 outside the normal @code{call} and @code{jmpi} address range. These
7868 trampolines are inserted at section boundaries, so may not themselves
7869 be reachable if an input section and its associated call trampolines are
7872 The @option{--relax} option is enabled by default unless @option{-r}
7873 is also specified. You can disable trampoline generation by using the
7874 @option{--no-relax} linker option. You can also disable this optimization
7875 locally by using the @samp{set .noat} directive in assembly-language
7876 source files, as the linker-inserted trampolines use the @code{at}
7877 register as a temporary.
7879 Note that the linker @option{--relax} option is independent of assembler
7880 relaxation options, and that using the GNU assembler's @option{-relax-all}
7881 option interferes with the linker's more selective call instruction relaxation.
7894 @section @command{ld} and PowerPC 32-bit ELF Support
7895 @cindex PowerPC long branches
7896 @kindex --relax on PowerPC
7897 Branches on PowerPC processors are limited to a signed 26-bit
7898 displacement, which may result in @command{ld} giving
7899 @samp{relocation truncated to fit} errors with very large programs.
7900 @samp{--relax} enables the generation of trampolines that can access
7901 the entire 32-bit address space. These trampolines are inserted at
7902 section boundaries, so may not themselves be reachable if an input
7903 section exceeds 33M in size. You may combine @samp{-r} and
7904 @samp{--relax} to add trampolines in a partial link. In that case
7905 both branches to undefined symbols and inter-section branches are also
7906 considered potentially out of range, and trampolines inserted.
7908 @cindex PowerPC ELF32 options
7913 Current PowerPC GCC accepts a @samp{-msecure-plt} option that
7914 generates code capable of using a newer PLT and GOT layout that has
7915 the security advantage of no executable section ever needing to be
7916 writable and no writable section ever being executable. PowerPC
7917 @command{ld} will generate this layout, including stubs to access the
7918 PLT, if all input files (including startup and static libraries) were
7919 compiled with @samp{-msecure-plt}. @samp{--bss-plt} forces the old
7920 BSS PLT (and GOT layout) which can give slightly better performance.
7922 @kindex --secure-plt
7924 @command{ld} will use the new PLT and GOT layout if it is linking new
7925 @samp{-fpic} or @samp{-fPIC} code, but does not do so automatically
7926 when linking non-PIC code. This option requests the new PLT and GOT
7927 layout. A warning will be given if some object file requires the old
7933 The new secure PLT and GOT are placed differently relative to other
7934 sections compared to older BSS PLT and GOT placement. The location of
7935 @code{.plt} must change because the new secure PLT is an initialized
7936 section while the old PLT is uninitialized. The reason for the
7937 @code{.got} change is more subtle: The new placement allows
7938 @code{.got} to be read-only in applications linked with
7939 @samp{-z relro -z now}. However, this placement means that
7940 @code{.sdata} cannot always be used in shared libraries, because the
7941 PowerPC ABI accesses @code{.sdata} in shared libraries from the GOT
7942 pointer. @samp{--sdata-got} forces the old GOT placement. PowerPC
7943 GCC doesn't use @code{.sdata} in shared libraries, so this option is
7944 really only useful for other compilers that may do so.
7946 @cindex PowerPC stub symbols
7947 @kindex --emit-stub-syms
7948 @item --emit-stub-syms
7949 This option causes @command{ld} to label linker stubs with a local
7950 symbol that encodes the stub type and destination.
7952 @cindex PowerPC TLS optimization
7953 @kindex --no-tls-optimize
7954 @item --no-tls-optimize
7955 PowerPC @command{ld} normally performs some optimization of code
7956 sequences used to access Thread-Local Storage. Use this option to
7957 disable the optimization.
7970 @node PowerPC64 ELF64
7971 @section @command{ld} and PowerPC64 64-bit ELF Support
7973 @cindex PowerPC64 ELF64 options
7975 @cindex PowerPC64 stub grouping
7976 @kindex --stub-group-size
7977 @item --stub-group-size
7978 Long branch stubs, PLT call stubs and TOC adjusting stubs are placed
7979 by @command{ld} in stub sections located between groups of input sections.
7980 @samp{--stub-group-size} specifies the maximum size of a group of input
7981 sections handled by one stub section. Since branch offsets are signed,
7982 a stub section may serve two groups of input sections, one group before
7983 the stub section, and one group after it. However, when using
7984 conditional branches that require stubs, it may be better (for branch
7985 prediction) that stub sections only serve one group of input sections.
7986 A negative value for @samp{N} chooses this scheme, ensuring that
7987 branches to stubs always use a negative offset. Two special values of
7988 @samp{N} are recognized, @samp{1} and @samp{-1}. These both instruct
7989 @command{ld} to automatically size input section groups for the branch types
7990 detected, with the same behaviour regarding stub placement as other
7991 positive or negative values of @samp{N} respectively.
7993 Note that @samp{--stub-group-size} does not split input sections. A
7994 single input section larger than the group size specified will of course
7995 create a larger group (of one section). If input sections are too
7996 large, it may not be possible for a branch to reach its stub.
7998 @cindex PowerPC64 stub symbols
7999 @kindex --emit-stub-syms
8000 @item --emit-stub-syms
8001 This option causes @command{ld} to label linker stubs with a local
8002 symbol that encodes the stub type and destination.
8004 @cindex PowerPC64 dot symbols
8006 @kindex --no-dotsyms
8009 These two options control how @command{ld} interprets version patterns
8010 in a version script. Older PowerPC64 compilers emitted both a
8011 function descriptor symbol with the same name as the function, and a
8012 code entry symbol with the name prefixed by a dot (@samp{.}). To
8013 properly version a function @samp{foo}, the version script thus needs
8014 to control both @samp{foo} and @samp{.foo}. The option
8015 @samp{--dotsyms}, on by default, automatically adds the required
8016 dot-prefixed patterns. Use @samp{--no-dotsyms} to disable this
8019 @cindex PowerPC64 register save/restore functions
8020 @kindex --save-restore-funcs
8021 @kindex --no-save-restore-funcs
8022 @item --save-restore-funcs
8023 @itemx --no-save-restore-funcs
8024 These two options control whether PowerPC64 @command{ld} automatically
8025 provides out-of-line register save and restore functions used by
8026 @samp{-Os} code. The default is to provide any such referenced
8027 function for a normal final link, and to not do so for a relocatable
8030 @cindex PowerPC64 TLS optimization
8031 @kindex --no-tls-optimize
8032 @item --no-tls-optimize
8033 PowerPC64 @command{ld} normally performs some optimization of code
8034 sequences used to access Thread-Local Storage. Use this option to
8035 disable the optimization.
8037 @cindex PowerPC64 __tls_get_addr optimization
8038 @kindex --tls-get-addr-optimize
8039 @kindex --no-tls-get-addr-optimize
8040 @kindex --tls-get-addr-regsave
8041 @kindex --no-tls-get-addr-regsave
8042 @item --tls-get-addr-optimize
8043 @itemx --no-tls-get-addr-optimize
8044 These options control how PowerPC64 @command{ld} uses a special
8045 stub to call __tls_get_addr. PowerPC64 glibc 2.22 and later support
8046 an optimization that allows the second and subsequent calls to
8047 @code{__tls_get_addr} for a given symbol to be resolved by the special
8048 stub without calling in to glibc. By default the linker enables
8049 generation of the stub when glibc advertises the availability of
8051 Using @option{--tls-get-addr-optimize} with an older glibc won't do
8052 much besides slow down your applications, but may be useful if linking
8053 an application against an older glibc with the expectation that it
8054 will normally be used on systems having a newer glibc.
8055 @option{--tls-get-addr-regsave} forces generation of a stub that saves
8056 and restores volatile registers around the call into glibc. Normally,
8057 this is done when the linker detects a call to __tls_get_addr_desc.
8058 Such calls then go via the register saving stub to __tls_get_addr_opt.
8059 @option{--no-tls-get-addr-regsave} disables generation of the
8062 @cindex PowerPC64 OPD optimization
8063 @kindex --no-opd-optimize
8064 @item --no-opd-optimize
8065 PowerPC64 @command{ld} normally removes @code{.opd} section entries
8066 corresponding to deleted link-once functions, or functions removed by
8067 the action of @samp{--gc-sections} or linker script @code{/DISCARD/}.
8068 Use this option to disable @code{.opd} optimization.
8070 @cindex PowerPC64 OPD spacing
8071 @kindex --non-overlapping-opd
8072 @item --non-overlapping-opd
8073 Some PowerPC64 compilers have an option to generate compressed
8074 @code{.opd} entries spaced 16 bytes apart, overlapping the third word,
8075 the static chain pointer (unused in C) with the first word of the next
8076 entry. This option expands such entries to the full 24 bytes.
8078 @cindex PowerPC64 TOC optimization
8079 @kindex --no-toc-optimize
8080 @item --no-toc-optimize
8081 PowerPC64 @command{ld} normally removes unused @code{.toc} section
8082 entries. Such entries are detected by examining relocations that
8083 reference the TOC in code sections. A reloc in a deleted code section
8084 marks a TOC word as unneeded, while a reloc in a kept code section
8085 marks a TOC word as needed. Since the TOC may reference itself, TOC
8086 relocs are also examined. TOC words marked as both needed and
8087 unneeded will of course be kept. TOC words without any referencing
8088 reloc are assumed to be part of a multi-word entry, and are kept or
8089 discarded as per the nearest marked preceding word. This works
8090 reliably for compiler generated code, but may be incorrect if assembly
8091 code is used to insert TOC entries. Use this option to disable the
8094 @cindex PowerPC64 inline PLT call optimization
8095 @kindex --no-inline-optimize
8096 @item --no-inline-optimize
8097 PowerPC64 @command{ld} normally replaces inline PLT call sequences
8098 marked with @code{R_PPC64_PLTSEQ}, @code{R_PPC64_PLTCALL},
8099 @code{R_PPC64_PLT16_HA} and @code{R_PPC64_PLT16_LO_DS} relocations by
8100 a number of @code{nop}s and a direct call when the function is defined
8101 locally and can't be overridden by some other definition. This option
8102 disables that optimization.
8104 @cindex PowerPC64 multi-TOC
8105 @kindex --no-multi-toc
8106 @item --no-multi-toc
8107 If given any toc option besides @code{-mcmodel=medium} or
8108 @code{-mcmodel=large}, PowerPC64 GCC generates code for a TOC model
8110 entries are accessed with a 16-bit offset from r2. This limits the
8111 total TOC size to 64K. PowerPC64 @command{ld} extends this limit by
8112 grouping code sections such that each group uses less than 64K for its
8113 TOC entries, then inserts r2 adjusting stubs between inter-group
8114 calls. @command{ld} does not split apart input sections, so cannot
8115 help if a single input file has a @code{.toc} section that exceeds
8116 64K, most likely from linking multiple files with @command{ld -r}.
8117 Use this option to turn off this feature.
8119 @cindex PowerPC64 TOC sorting
8120 @kindex --no-toc-sort
8122 By default, @command{ld} sorts TOC sections so that those whose file
8123 happens to have a section called @code{.init} or @code{.fini} are
8124 placed first, followed by TOC sections referenced by code generated
8125 with PowerPC64 gcc's @code{-mcmodel=small}, and lastly TOC sections
8126 referenced only by code generated with PowerPC64 gcc's
8127 @code{-mcmodel=medium} or @code{-mcmodel=large} options. Doing this
8128 results in better TOC grouping for multi-TOC. Use this option to turn
8131 @cindex PowerPC64 PLT stub alignment
8133 @kindex --no-plt-align
8135 @itemx --no-plt-align
8136 Use these options to control whether individual PLT call stubs are
8137 aligned to a 32-byte boundary, or to the specified power of two
8138 boundary when using @code{--plt-align=}. A negative value may be
8139 specified to pad PLT call stubs so that they do not cross the
8140 specified power of two boundary (or the minimum number of boundaries
8141 if a PLT stub is so large that it must cross a boundary). By default
8142 PLT call stubs are aligned to 32-byte boundaries.
8144 @cindex PowerPC64 PLT call stub static chain
8145 @kindex --plt-static-chain
8146 @kindex --no-plt-static-chain
8147 @item --plt-static-chain
8148 @itemx --no-plt-static-chain
8149 Use these options to control whether PLT call stubs load the static
8150 chain pointer (r11). @code{ld} defaults to not loading the static
8151 chain since there is never any need to do so on a PLT call.
8153 @cindex PowerPC64 PLT call stub thread safety
8154 @kindex --plt-thread-safe
8155 @kindex --no-plt-thread-safe
8156 @item --plt-thread-safe
8157 @itemx --no-plt-thread-safe
8158 With power7's weakly ordered memory model, it is possible when using
8159 lazy binding for ld.so to update a plt entry in one thread and have
8160 another thread see the individual plt entry words update in the wrong
8161 order, despite ld.so carefully writing in the correct order and using
8162 memory write barriers. To avoid this we need some sort of read
8163 barrier in the call stub, or use LD_BIND_NOW=1. By default, @code{ld}
8164 looks for calls to commonly used functions that create threads, and if
8165 seen, adds the necessary barriers. Use these options to change the
8168 @cindex PowerPC64 ELFv2 PLT localentry optimization
8169 @kindex --plt-localentry
8170 @kindex --no-plt-localentry
8171 @item --plt-localentry
8172 @itemx --no-localentry
8173 ELFv2 functions with localentry:0 are those with a single entry point,
8174 ie. global entry == local entry, and that have no requirement on r2
8175 (the TOC/GOT pointer) or r12, and guarantee r2 is unchanged on return.
8176 Such an external function can be called via the PLT without saving r2
8177 or restoring it on return, avoiding a common load-hit-store for small
8178 functions. The optimization is attractive, with up to 40% reduction
8179 in execution time for a small function, but can result in symbol
8180 interposition failures. Also, minor changes in a shared library,
8181 including system libraries, can cause a function that was localentry:0
8182 to become localentry:8. This will result in a dynamic loader
8183 complaint and failure to run. The option is experimental, use with
8184 care. @option{--no-plt-localentry} is the default.
8186 @cindex PowerPC64 Power10 stubs
8187 @kindex --power10-stubs
8188 @kindex --no-power10-stubs
8189 @item --power10-stubs
8190 @itemx --no-power10-stubs
8191 When PowerPC64 @command{ld} links input object files containing
8192 relocations used on power10 prefixed instructions it normally creates
8193 linkage stubs (PLT call and long branch) using power10 instructions
8194 for @code{@@notoc} PLT calls where @code{r2} is not known. The
8195 power10 notoc stubs are smaller and faster, so are preferred for
8196 power10. @option{--power10-stubs} and @option{--no-power10-stubs}
8197 allow you to override the linker's selection of stub instructions.
8198 @option{--power10-stubs=auto} allows the user to select the default
8213 @section @command{ld} and S/390 ELF Support
8215 @cindex S/390 ELF options
8219 @kindex --s390-pgste
8221 This option marks the result file with a @code{PT_S390_PGSTE}
8222 segment. The Linux kernel is supposed to allocate 4k page tables for
8223 binaries marked that way.
8237 @section @command{ld} and SPU ELF Support
8239 @cindex SPU ELF options
8245 This option marks an executable as a PIC plugin module.
8247 @cindex SPU overlays
8248 @kindex --no-overlays
8250 Normally, @command{ld} recognizes calls to functions within overlay
8251 regions, and redirects such calls to an overlay manager via a stub.
8252 @command{ld} also provides a built-in overlay manager. This option
8253 turns off all this special overlay handling.
8255 @cindex SPU overlay stub symbols
8256 @kindex --emit-stub-syms
8257 @item --emit-stub-syms
8258 This option causes @command{ld} to label overlay stubs with a local
8259 symbol that encodes the stub type and destination.
8261 @cindex SPU extra overlay stubs
8262 @kindex --extra-overlay-stubs
8263 @item --extra-overlay-stubs
8264 This option causes @command{ld} to add overlay call stubs on all
8265 function calls out of overlay regions. Normally stubs are not added
8266 on calls to non-overlay regions.
8268 @cindex SPU local store size
8269 @kindex --local-store=lo:hi
8270 @item --local-store=lo:hi
8271 @command{ld} usually checks that a final executable for SPU fits in
8272 the address range 0 to 256k. This option may be used to change the
8273 range. Disable the check entirely with @option{--local-store=0:0}.
8276 @kindex --stack-analysis
8277 @item --stack-analysis
8278 SPU local store space is limited. Over-allocation of stack space
8279 unnecessarily limits space available for code and data, while
8280 under-allocation results in runtime failures. If given this option,
8281 @command{ld} will provide an estimate of maximum stack usage.
8282 @command{ld} does this by examining symbols in code sections to
8283 determine the extents of functions, and looking at function prologues
8284 for stack adjusting instructions. A call-graph is created by looking
8285 for relocations on branch instructions. The graph is then searched
8286 for the maximum stack usage path. Note that this analysis does not
8287 find calls made via function pointers, and does not handle recursion
8288 and other cycles in the call graph. Stack usage may be
8289 under-estimated if your code makes such calls. Also, stack usage for
8290 dynamic allocation, e.g. alloca, will not be detected. If a link map
8291 is requested, detailed information about each function's stack usage
8292 and calls will be given.
8295 @kindex --emit-stack-syms
8296 @item --emit-stack-syms
8297 This option, if given along with @option{--stack-analysis} will result
8298 in @command{ld} emitting stack sizing symbols for each function.
8299 These take the form @code{__stack_<function_name>} for global
8300 functions, and @code{__stack_<number>_<function_name>} for static
8301 functions. @code{<number>} is the section id in hex. The value of
8302 such symbols is the stack requirement for the corresponding function.
8303 The symbol size will be zero, type @code{STT_NOTYPE}, binding
8304 @code{STB_LOCAL}, and section @code{SHN_ABS}.
8318 @section @command{ld}'s Support for Various TI COFF Versions
8319 @cindex TI COFF versions
8320 @kindex --format=@var{version}
8321 The @samp{--format} switch allows selection of one of the various
8322 TI COFF versions. The latest of this writing is 2; versions 0 and 1 are
8323 also supported. The TI COFF versions also vary in header byte-order
8324 format; @command{ld} will read any version or byte order, but the output
8325 header format depends on the default specified by the specific target.
8338 @section @command{ld} and WIN32 (cygwin/mingw)
8340 This section describes some of the win32 specific @command{ld} issues.
8341 See @ref{Options,,Command-line Options} for detailed description of the
8342 command-line options mentioned here.
8345 @cindex import libraries
8346 @item import libraries
8347 The standard Windows linker creates and uses so-called import
8348 libraries, which contains information for linking to dll's. They are
8349 regular static archives and are handled as any other static
8350 archive. The cygwin and mingw ports of @command{ld} have specific
8351 support for creating such libraries provided with the
8352 @samp{--out-implib} command-line option.
8354 @item exporting DLL symbols
8355 @cindex exporting DLL symbols
8356 The cygwin/mingw @command{ld} has several ways to export symbols for dll's.
8359 @item using auto-export functionality
8360 @cindex using auto-export functionality
8361 By default @command{ld} exports symbols with the auto-export functionality,
8362 which is controlled by the following command-line options:
8365 @item --export-all-symbols [This is the default]
8366 @item --exclude-symbols
8367 @item --exclude-libs
8368 @item --exclude-modules-for-implib
8369 @item --version-script
8372 When auto-export is in operation, @command{ld} will export all the non-local
8373 (global and common) symbols it finds in a DLL, with the exception of a few
8374 symbols known to belong to the system's runtime and libraries. As it will
8375 often not be desirable to export all of a DLL's symbols, which may include
8376 private functions that are not part of any public interface, the command-line
8377 options listed above may be used to filter symbols out from the list for
8378 exporting. The @samp{--output-def} option can be used in order to see the
8379 final list of exported symbols with all exclusions taken into effect.
8381 If @samp{--export-all-symbols} is not given explicitly on the
8382 command line, then the default auto-export behavior will be @emph{disabled}
8383 if either of the following are true:
8386 @item A DEF file is used.
8387 @item Any symbol in any object file was marked with the __declspec(dllexport) attribute.
8390 @item using a DEF file
8391 @cindex using a DEF file
8392 Another way of exporting symbols is using a DEF file. A DEF file is
8393 an ASCII file containing definitions of symbols which should be
8394 exported when a dll is created. Usually it is named @samp{<dll
8395 name>.def} and is added as any other object file to the linker's
8396 command line. The file's name must end in @samp{.def} or @samp{.DEF}.
8399 gcc -o <output> <objectfiles> <dll name>.def
8402 Using a DEF file turns off the normal auto-export behavior, unless the
8403 @samp{--export-all-symbols} option is also used.
8405 Here is an example of a DEF file for a shared library called @samp{xyz.dll}:
8408 LIBRARY "xyz.dll" BASE=0x20000000
8414 another_foo = abc.dll.afoo
8420 This example defines a DLL with a non-default base address and seven
8421 symbols in the export table. The third exported symbol @code{_bar} is an
8422 alias for the second. The fourth symbol, @code{another_foo} is resolved
8423 by "forwarding" to another module and treating it as an alias for
8424 @code{afoo} exported from the DLL @samp{abc.dll}. The final symbol
8425 @code{var1} is declared to be a data object. The @samp{doo} symbol in
8426 export library is an alias of @samp{foo}, which gets the string name
8427 in export table @samp{foo2}. The @samp{eoo} symbol is an data export
8428 symbol, which gets in export table the name @samp{var1}.
8430 The optional @code{LIBRARY <name>} command indicates the @emph{internal}
8431 name of the output DLL. If @samp{<name>} does not include a suffix,
8432 the default library suffix, @samp{.DLL} is appended.
8434 When the .DEF file is used to build an application, rather than a
8435 library, the @code{NAME <name>} command should be used instead of
8436 @code{LIBRARY}. If @samp{<name>} does not include a suffix, the default
8437 executable suffix, @samp{.EXE} is appended.
8439 With either @code{LIBRARY <name>} or @code{NAME <name>} the optional
8440 specification @code{BASE = <number>} may be used to specify a
8441 non-default base address for the image.
8443 If neither @code{LIBRARY <name>} nor @code{NAME <name>} is specified,
8444 or they specify an empty string, the internal name is the same as the
8445 filename specified on the command line.
8447 The complete specification of an export symbol is:
8451 ( ( ( <name1> [ = <name2> ] )
8452 | ( <name1> = <module-name> . <external-name>))
8453 [ @@ <integer> ] [NONAME] [DATA] [CONSTANT] [PRIVATE] [== <name3>] ) *
8456 Declares @samp{<name1>} as an exported symbol from the DLL, or declares
8457 @samp{<name1>} as an exported alias for @samp{<name2>}; or declares
8458 @samp{<name1>} as a "forward" alias for the symbol
8459 @samp{<external-name>} in the DLL @samp{<module-name>}.
8460 Optionally, the symbol may be exported by the specified ordinal
8461 @samp{<integer>} alias. The optional @samp{<name3>} is the to be used
8462 string in import/export table for the symbol.
8464 The optional keywords that follow the declaration indicate:
8466 @code{NONAME}: Do not put the symbol name in the DLL's export table. It
8467 will still be exported by its ordinal alias (either the value specified
8468 by the .def specification or, otherwise, the value assigned by the
8469 linker). The symbol name, however, does remain visible in the import
8470 library (if any), unless @code{PRIVATE} is also specified.
8472 @code{DATA}: The symbol is a variable or object, rather than a function.
8473 The import lib will export only an indirect reference to @code{foo} as
8474 the symbol @code{_imp__foo} (ie, @code{foo} must be resolved as
8477 @code{CONSTANT}: Like @code{DATA}, but put the undecorated @code{foo} as
8478 well as @code{_imp__foo} into the import library. Both refer to the
8479 read-only import address table's pointer to the variable, not to the
8480 variable itself. This can be dangerous. If the user code fails to add
8481 the @code{dllimport} attribute and also fails to explicitly add the
8482 extra indirection that the use of the attribute enforces, the
8483 application will behave unexpectedly.
8485 @code{PRIVATE}: Put the symbol in the DLL's export table, but do not put
8486 it into the static import library used to resolve imports at link time. The
8487 symbol can still be imported using the @code{LoadLibrary/GetProcAddress}
8488 API at runtime or by using the GNU ld extension of linking directly to
8489 the DLL without an import library.
8491 See ld/deffilep.y in the binutils sources for the full specification of
8492 other DEF file statements
8494 @cindex creating a DEF file
8495 While linking a shared dll, @command{ld} is able to create a DEF file
8496 with the @samp{--output-def <file>} command-line option.
8498 @item Using decorations
8499 @cindex Using decorations
8500 Another way of marking symbols for export is to modify the source code
8501 itself, so that when building the DLL each symbol to be exported is
8505 __declspec(dllexport) int a_variable
8506 __declspec(dllexport) void a_function(int with_args)
8509 All such symbols will be exported from the DLL. If, however,
8510 any of the object files in the DLL contain symbols decorated in
8511 this way, then the normal auto-export behavior is disabled, unless
8512 the @samp{--export-all-symbols} option is also used.
8514 Note that object files that wish to access these symbols must @emph{not}
8515 decorate them with dllexport. Instead, they should use dllimport,
8519 __declspec(dllimport) int a_variable
8520 __declspec(dllimport) void a_function(int with_args)
8523 This complicates the structure of library header files, because
8524 when included by the library itself the header must declare the
8525 variables and functions as dllexport, but when included by client
8526 code the header must declare them as dllimport. There are a number
8527 of idioms that are typically used to do this; often client code can
8528 omit the __declspec() declaration completely. See
8529 @samp{--enable-auto-import} and @samp{automatic data imports} for more
8533 @cindex automatic data imports
8534 @item automatic data imports
8535 The standard Windows dll format supports data imports from dlls only
8536 by adding special decorations (dllimport/dllexport), which let the
8537 compiler produce specific assembler instructions to deal with this
8538 issue. This increases the effort necessary to port existing Un*x
8539 code to these platforms, especially for large
8540 c++ libraries and applications. The auto-import feature, which was
8541 initially provided by Paul Sokolovsky, allows one to omit the
8542 decorations to achieve a behavior that conforms to that on POSIX/Un*x
8543 platforms. This feature is enabled with the @samp{--enable-auto-import}
8544 command-line option, although it is enabled by default on cygwin/mingw.
8545 The @samp{--enable-auto-import} option itself now serves mainly to
8546 suppress any warnings that are ordinarily emitted when linked objects
8547 trigger the feature's use.
8549 auto-import of variables does not always work flawlessly without
8550 additional assistance. Sometimes, you will see this message
8552 "variable '<var>' can't be auto-imported. Please read the
8553 documentation for ld's @code{--enable-auto-import} for details."
8555 The @samp{--enable-auto-import} documentation explains why this error
8556 occurs, and several methods that can be used to overcome this difficulty.
8557 One of these methods is the @emph{runtime pseudo-relocs} feature, described
8560 @cindex runtime pseudo-relocation
8561 For complex variables imported from DLLs (such as structs or classes),
8562 object files typically contain a base address for the variable and an
8563 offset (@emph{addend}) within the variable--to specify a particular
8564 field or public member, for instance. Unfortunately, the runtime loader used
8565 in win32 environments is incapable of fixing these references at runtime
8566 without the additional information supplied by dllimport/dllexport decorations.
8567 The standard auto-import feature described above is unable to resolve these
8570 The @samp{--enable-runtime-pseudo-relocs} switch allows these references to
8571 be resolved without error, while leaving the task of adjusting the references
8572 themselves (with their non-zero addends) to specialized code provided by the
8573 runtime environment. Recent versions of the cygwin and mingw environments and
8574 compilers provide this runtime support; older versions do not. However, the
8575 support is only necessary on the developer's platform; the compiled result will
8576 run without error on an older system.
8578 @samp{--enable-runtime-pseudo-relocs} is not the default; it must be explicitly
8581 @cindex direct linking to a dll
8582 @item direct linking to a dll
8583 The cygwin/mingw ports of @command{ld} support the direct linking,
8584 including data symbols, to a dll without the usage of any import
8585 libraries. This is much faster and uses much less memory than does the
8586 traditional import library method, especially when linking large
8587 libraries or applications. When @command{ld} creates an import lib, each
8588 function or variable exported from the dll is stored in its own bfd, even
8589 though a single bfd could contain many exports. The overhead involved in
8590 storing, loading, and processing so many bfd's is quite large, and explains the
8591 tremendous time, memory, and storage needed to link against particularly
8592 large or complex libraries when using import libs.
8594 Linking directly to a dll uses no extra command-line switches other than
8595 @samp{-L} and @samp{-l}, because @command{ld} already searches for a number
8596 of names to match each library. All that is needed from the developer's
8597 perspective is an understanding of this search, in order to force ld to
8598 select the dll instead of an import library.
8601 For instance, when ld is called with the argument @samp{-lxxx} it will attempt
8602 to find, in the first directory of its search path,
8615 before moving on to the next directory in the search path.
8617 (*) Actually, this is not @samp{cygxxx.dll} but in fact is @samp{<prefix>xxx.dll},
8618 where @samp{<prefix>} is set by the @command{ld} option
8619 @samp{--dll-search-prefix=<prefix>}. In the case of cygwin, the standard gcc spec
8620 file includes @samp{--dll-search-prefix=cyg}, so in effect we actually search for
8623 Other win32-based unix environments, such as mingw or pw32, may use other
8624 @samp{<prefix>}es, although at present only cygwin makes use of this feature. It
8625 was originally intended to help avoid name conflicts among dll's built for the
8626 various win32/un*x environments, so that (for example) two versions of a zlib dll
8627 could coexist on the same machine.
8629 The generic cygwin/mingw path layout uses a @samp{bin} directory for
8630 applications and dll's and a @samp{lib} directory for the import
8631 libraries (using cygwin nomenclature):
8637 libxxx.dll.a (in case of dll's)
8638 libxxx.a (in case of static archive)
8641 Linking directly to a dll without using the import library can be
8644 1. Use the dll directly by adding the @samp{bin} path to the link line
8646 gcc -Wl,-verbose -o a.exe -L../bin/ -lxxx
8649 However, as the dll's often have version numbers appended to their names
8650 (@samp{cygncurses-5.dll}) this will often fail, unless one specifies
8651 @samp{-L../bin -lncurses-5} to include the version. Import libs are generally
8652 not versioned, and do not have this difficulty.
8654 2. Create a symbolic link from the dll to a file in the @samp{lib}
8655 directory according to the above mentioned search pattern. This
8656 should be used to avoid unwanted changes in the tools needed for
8660 ln -s bin/cygxxx.dll lib/[cyg|lib|]xxx.dll[.a]
8663 Then you can link without any make environment changes.
8666 gcc -Wl,-verbose -o a.exe -L../lib/ -lxxx
8669 This technique also avoids the version number problems, because the following is
8676 libxxx.dll.a -> ../bin/cygxxx-5.dll
8679 Linking directly to a dll without using an import lib will work
8680 even when auto-import features are exercised, and even when
8681 @samp{--enable-runtime-pseudo-relocs} is used.
8683 Given the improvements in speed and memory usage, one might justifiably
8684 wonder why import libraries are used at all. There are three reasons:
8686 1. Until recently, the link-directly-to-dll functionality did @emph{not}
8687 work with auto-imported data.
8689 2. Sometimes it is necessary to include pure static objects within the
8690 import library (which otherwise contains only bfd's for indirection
8691 symbols that point to the exports of a dll). Again, the import lib
8692 for the cygwin kernel makes use of this ability, and it is not
8693 possible to do this without an import lib.
8695 3. Symbol aliases can only be resolved using an import lib. This is
8696 critical when linking against OS-supplied dll's (eg, the win32 API)
8697 in which symbols are usually exported as undecorated aliases of their
8698 stdcall-decorated assembly names.
8700 So, import libs are not going away. But the ability to replace
8701 true import libs with a simple symbolic link to (or a copy of)
8702 a dll, in many cases, is a useful addition to the suite of tools
8703 binutils makes available to the win32 developer. Given the
8704 massive improvements in memory requirements during linking, storage
8705 requirements, and linking speed, we expect that many developers
8706 will soon begin to use this feature whenever possible.
8708 @item symbol aliasing
8710 @item adding additional names
8711 Sometimes, it is useful to export symbols with additional names.
8712 A symbol @samp{foo} will be exported as @samp{foo}, but it can also be
8713 exported as @samp{_foo} by using special directives in the DEF file
8714 when creating the dll. This will affect also the optional created
8715 import library. Consider the following DEF file:
8718 LIBRARY "xyz.dll" BASE=0x61000000
8725 The line @samp{_foo = foo} maps the symbol @samp{foo} to @samp{_foo}.
8727 Another method for creating a symbol alias is to create it in the
8728 source code using the "weak" attribute:
8731 void foo () @{ /* Do something. */; @}
8732 void _foo () __attribute__ ((weak, alias ("foo")));
8735 See the gcc manual for more information about attributes and weak
8738 @item renaming symbols
8739 Sometimes it is useful to rename exports. For instance, the cygwin
8740 kernel does this regularly. A symbol @samp{_foo} can be exported as
8741 @samp{foo} but not as @samp{_foo} by using special directives in the
8742 DEF file. (This will also affect the import library, if it is
8743 created). In the following example:
8746 LIBRARY "xyz.dll" BASE=0x61000000
8752 The line @samp{_foo = foo} maps the exported symbol @samp{foo} to
8756 Note: using a DEF file disables the default auto-export behavior,
8757 unless the @samp{--export-all-symbols} command-line option is used.
8758 If, however, you are trying to rename symbols, then you should list
8759 @emph{all} desired exports in the DEF file, including the symbols
8760 that are not being renamed, and do @emph{not} use the
8761 @samp{--export-all-symbols} option. If you list only the
8762 renamed symbols in the DEF file, and use @samp{--export-all-symbols}
8763 to handle the other symbols, then the both the new names @emph{and}
8764 the original names for the renamed symbols will be exported.
8765 In effect, you'd be aliasing those symbols, not renaming them,
8766 which is probably not what you wanted.
8768 @cindex weak externals
8769 @item weak externals
8770 The Windows object format, PE, specifies a form of weak symbols called
8771 weak externals. When a weak symbol is linked and the symbol is not
8772 defined, the weak symbol becomes an alias for some other symbol. There
8773 are three variants of weak externals:
8775 @item Definition is searched for in objects and libraries, historically
8776 called lazy externals.
8777 @item Definition is searched for only in other objects, not in libraries.
8778 This form is not presently implemented.
8779 @item No search; the symbol is an alias. This form is not presently
8782 As a GNU extension, weak symbols that do not specify an alternate symbol
8783 are supported. If the symbol is undefined when linking, the symbol
8784 uses a default value.
8786 @cindex aligned common symbols
8787 @item aligned common symbols
8788 As a GNU extension to the PE file format, it is possible to specify the
8789 desired alignment for a common symbol. This information is conveyed from
8790 the assembler or compiler to the linker by means of GNU-specific commands
8791 carried in the object file's @samp{.drectve} section, which are recognized
8792 by @command{ld} and respected when laying out the common symbols. Native
8793 tools will be able to process object files employing this GNU extension,
8794 but will fail to respect the alignment instructions, and may issue noisy
8795 warnings about unknown linker directives.
8810 @section @code{ld} and Xtensa Processors
8812 @cindex Xtensa processors
8813 The default @command{ld} behavior for Xtensa processors is to interpret
8814 @code{SECTIONS} commands so that lists of explicitly named sections in a
8815 specification with a wildcard file will be interleaved when necessary to
8816 keep literal pools within the range of PC-relative load offsets. For
8817 example, with the command:
8829 @command{ld} may interleave some of the @code{.literal}
8830 and @code{.text} sections from different object files to ensure that the
8831 literal pools are within the range of PC-relative load offsets. A valid
8832 interleaving might place the @code{.literal} sections from an initial
8833 group of files followed by the @code{.text} sections of that group of
8834 files. Then, the @code{.literal} sections from the rest of the files
8835 and the @code{.text} sections from the rest of the files would follow.
8837 @cindex @option{--relax} on Xtensa
8838 @cindex relaxing on Xtensa
8839 Relaxation is enabled by default for the Xtensa version of @command{ld} and
8840 provides two important link-time optimizations. The first optimization
8841 is to combine identical literal values to reduce code size. A redundant
8842 literal will be removed and all the @code{L32R} instructions that use it
8843 will be changed to reference an identical literal, as long as the
8844 location of the replacement literal is within the offset range of all
8845 the @code{L32R} instructions. The second optimization is to remove
8846 unnecessary overhead from assembler-generated ``longcall'' sequences of
8847 @code{L32R}/@code{CALLX@var{n}} when the target functions are within
8848 range of direct @code{CALL@var{n}} instructions.
8850 For each of these cases where an indirect call sequence can be optimized
8851 to a direct call, the linker will change the @code{CALLX@var{n}}
8852 instruction to a @code{CALL@var{n}} instruction, remove the @code{L32R}
8853 instruction, and remove the literal referenced by the @code{L32R}
8854 instruction if it is not used for anything else. Removing the
8855 @code{L32R} instruction always reduces code size but can potentially
8856 hurt performance by changing the alignment of subsequent branch targets.
8857 By default, the linker will always preserve alignments, either by
8858 switching some instructions between 24-bit encodings and the equivalent
8859 density instructions or by inserting a no-op in place of the @code{L32R}
8860 instruction that was removed. If code size is more important than
8861 performance, the @option{--size-opt} option can be used to prevent the
8862 linker from widening density instructions or inserting no-ops, except in
8863 a few cases where no-ops are required for correctness.
8865 The following Xtensa-specific command-line options can be used to
8868 @cindex Xtensa options
8871 When optimizing indirect calls to direct calls, optimize for code size
8872 more than performance. With this option, the linker will not insert
8873 no-ops or widen density instructions to preserve branch target
8874 alignment. There may still be some cases where no-ops are required to
8875 preserve the correctness of the code.
8877 @item --abi-windowed
8879 Choose ABI for the output object and for the generated PLT code.
8880 PLT code inserted by the linker must match ABI of the output object
8881 because windowed and call0 ABI use incompatible function call
8883 Default ABI is chosen by the ABI tag in the @code{.xtensa.info} section
8884 of the first input object.
8885 A warning is issued if ABI tags of input objects do not match each other
8886 or the chosen output object ABI.
8894 @ifclear SingleFormat
8899 @cindex object file management
8900 @cindex object formats available
8902 The linker accesses object and archive files using the BFD libraries.
8903 These libraries allow the linker to use the same routines to operate on
8904 object files whatever the object file format. A different object file
8905 format can be supported simply by creating a new BFD back end and adding
8906 it to the library. To conserve runtime memory, however, the linker and
8907 associated tools are usually configured to support only a subset of the
8908 object file formats available. You can use @code{objdump -i}
8909 (@pxref{objdump,,objdump,binutils.info,The GNU Binary Utilities}) to
8910 list all the formats available for your configuration.
8912 @cindex BFD requirements
8913 @cindex requirements for BFD
8914 As with most implementations, BFD is a compromise between
8915 several conflicting requirements. The major factor influencing
8916 BFD design was efficiency: any time used converting between
8917 formats is time which would not have been spent had BFD not
8918 been involved. This is partly offset by abstraction payback; since
8919 BFD simplifies applications and back ends, more time and care
8920 may be spent optimizing algorithms for a greater speed.
8922 One minor artifact of the BFD solution which you should bear in
8923 mind is the potential for information loss. There are two places where
8924 useful information can be lost using the BFD mechanism: during
8925 conversion and during output. @xref{BFD information loss}.
8928 * BFD outline:: How it works: an outline of BFD
8932 @section How It Works: An Outline of BFD
8933 @cindex opening object files
8934 @include bfdsumm.texi
8937 @node Reporting Bugs
8938 @chapter Reporting Bugs
8939 @cindex bugs in @command{ld}
8940 @cindex reporting bugs in @command{ld}
8942 Your bug reports play an essential role in making @command{ld} reliable.
8944 Reporting a bug may help you by bringing a solution to your problem, or
8945 it may not. But in any case the principal function of a bug report is
8946 to help the entire community by making the next version of @command{ld}
8947 work better. Bug reports are your contribution to the maintenance of
8950 In order for a bug report to serve its purpose, you must include the
8951 information that enables us to fix the bug.
8954 * Bug Criteria:: Have you found a bug?
8955 * Bug Reporting:: How to report bugs
8959 @section Have You Found a Bug?
8960 @cindex bug criteria
8962 If you are not sure whether you have found a bug, here are some guidelines:
8965 @cindex fatal signal
8966 @cindex linker crash
8967 @cindex crash of linker
8969 If the linker gets a fatal signal, for any input whatever, that is a
8970 @command{ld} bug. Reliable linkers never crash.
8972 @cindex error on valid input
8974 If @command{ld} produces an error message for valid input, that is a bug.
8976 @cindex invalid input
8978 If @command{ld} does not produce an error message for invalid input, that
8979 may be a bug. In the general case, the linker can not verify that
8980 object files are correct.
8983 If you are an experienced user of linkers, your suggestions for
8984 improvement of @command{ld} are welcome in any case.
8988 @section How to Report Bugs
8990 @cindex @command{ld} bugs, reporting
8992 A number of companies and individuals offer support for @sc{gnu}
8993 products. If you obtained @command{ld} from a support organization, we
8994 recommend you contact that organization first.
8996 You can find contact information for many support companies and
8997 individuals in the file @file{etc/SERVICE} in the @sc{gnu} Emacs
9001 Otherwise, send bug reports for @command{ld} to
9005 The fundamental principle of reporting bugs usefully is this:
9006 @strong{report all the facts}. If you are not sure whether to state a
9007 fact or leave it out, state it!
9009 Often people omit facts because they think they know what causes the
9010 problem and assume that some details do not matter. Thus, you might
9011 assume that the name of a symbol you use in an example does not
9012 matter. Well, probably it does not, but one cannot be sure. Perhaps
9013 the bug is a stray memory reference which happens to fetch from the
9014 location where that name is stored in memory; perhaps, if the name
9015 were different, the contents of that location would fool the linker
9016 into doing the right thing despite the bug. Play it safe and give a
9017 specific, complete example. That is the easiest thing for you to do,
9018 and the most helpful.
9020 Keep in mind that the purpose of a bug report is to enable us to fix
9021 the bug if it is new to us. Therefore, always write your bug reports
9022 on the assumption that the bug has not been reported previously.
9024 Sometimes people give a few sketchy facts and ask, ``Does this ring a
9025 bell?'' This cannot help us fix a bug, so it is basically useless. We
9026 respond by asking for enough details to enable us to investigate.
9027 You might as well expedite matters by sending them to begin with.
9029 To enable us to fix the bug, you should include all these things:
9033 The version of @command{ld}. @command{ld} announces it if you start it with
9034 the @samp{--version} argument.
9036 Without this, we will not know whether there is any point in looking for
9037 the bug in the current version of @command{ld}.
9040 Any patches you may have applied to the @command{ld} source, including any
9041 patches made to the @code{BFD} library.
9044 The type of machine you are using, and the operating system name and
9048 What compiler (and its version) was used to compile @command{ld}---e.g.
9052 The command arguments you gave the linker to link your example and
9053 observe the bug. To guarantee you will not omit something important,
9054 list them all. A copy of the Makefile (or the output from make) is
9057 If we were to try to guess the arguments, we would probably guess wrong
9058 and then we might not encounter the bug.
9061 A complete input file, or set of input files, that will reproduce the
9062 bug. It is generally most helpful to send the actual object files
9063 provided that they are reasonably small. Say no more than 10K. For
9064 bigger files you can either make them available by FTP or HTTP or else
9065 state that you are willing to send the object file(s) to whomever
9066 requests them. (Note - your email will be going to a mailing list, so
9067 we do not want to clog it up with large attachments). But small
9068 attachments are best.
9070 If the source files were assembled using @code{gas} or compiled using
9071 @code{gcc}, then it may be OK to send the source files rather than the
9072 object files. In this case, be sure to say exactly what version of
9073 @code{gas} or @code{gcc} was used to produce the object files. Also say
9074 how @code{gas} or @code{gcc} were configured.
9077 A description of what behavior you observe that you believe is
9078 incorrect. For example, ``It gets a fatal signal.''
9080 Of course, if the bug is that @command{ld} gets a fatal signal, then we
9081 will certainly notice it. But if the bug is incorrect output, we might
9082 not notice unless it is glaringly wrong. You might as well not give us
9083 a chance to make a mistake.
9085 Even if the problem you experience is a fatal signal, you should still
9086 say so explicitly. Suppose something strange is going on, such as, your
9087 copy of @command{ld} is out of sync, or you have encountered a bug in the
9088 C library on your system. (This has happened!) Your copy might crash
9089 and ours would not. If you told us to expect a crash, then when ours
9090 fails to crash, we would know that the bug was not happening for us. If
9091 you had not told us to expect a crash, then we would not be able to draw
9092 any conclusion from our observations.
9095 If you wish to suggest changes to the @command{ld} source, send us context
9096 diffs, as generated by @code{diff} with the @samp{-u}, @samp{-c}, or
9097 @samp{-p} option. Always send diffs from the old file to the new file.
9098 If you even discuss something in the @command{ld} source, refer to it by
9099 context, not by line number.
9101 The line numbers in our development sources will not match those in your
9102 sources. Your line numbers would convey no useful information to us.
9105 Here are some things that are not necessary:
9109 A description of the envelope of the bug.
9111 Often people who encounter a bug spend a lot of time investigating
9112 which changes to the input file will make the bug go away and which
9113 changes will not affect it.
9115 This is often time consuming and not very useful, because the way we
9116 will find the bug is by running a single example under the debugger
9117 with breakpoints, not by pure deduction from a series of examples.
9118 We recommend that you save your time for something else.
9120 Of course, if you can find a simpler example to report @emph{instead}
9121 of the original one, that is a convenience for us. Errors in the
9122 output will be easier to spot, running under the debugger will take
9123 less time, and so on.
9125 However, simplification is not vital; if you do not want to do this,
9126 report the bug anyway and send us the entire test case you used.
9129 A patch for the bug.
9131 A patch for the bug does help us if it is a good one. But do not omit
9132 the necessary information, such as the test case, on the assumption that
9133 a patch is all we need. We might see problems with your patch and decide
9134 to fix the problem another way, or we might not understand it at all.
9136 Sometimes with a program as complicated as @command{ld} it is very hard to
9137 construct an example that will make the program follow a certain path
9138 through the code. If you do not send us the example, we will not be
9139 able to construct one, so we will not be able to verify that the bug is
9142 And if we cannot understand what bug you are trying to fix, or why your
9143 patch should be an improvement, we will not install it. A test case will
9144 help us to understand.
9147 A guess about what the bug is or what it depends on.
9149 Such guesses are usually wrong. Even we cannot guess right about such
9150 things without first using the debugger to find the facts.
9154 @appendix MRI Compatible Script Files
9155 @cindex MRI compatibility
9156 To aid users making the transition to @sc{gnu} @command{ld} from the MRI
9157 linker, @command{ld} can use MRI compatible linker scripts as an
9158 alternative to the more general-purpose linker scripting language
9159 described in @ref{Scripts}. MRI compatible linker scripts have a much
9160 simpler command set than the scripting language otherwise used with
9161 @command{ld}. @sc{gnu} @command{ld} supports the most commonly used MRI
9162 linker commands; these commands are described here.
9164 In general, MRI scripts aren't of much use with the @code{a.out} object
9165 file format, since it only has three sections and MRI scripts lack some
9166 features to make use of them.
9168 You can specify a file containing an MRI-compatible script using the
9169 @samp{-c} command-line option.
9171 Each command in an MRI-compatible script occupies its own line; each
9172 command line starts with the keyword that identifies the command (though
9173 blank lines are also allowed for punctuation). If a line of an
9174 MRI-compatible script begins with an unrecognized keyword, @command{ld}
9175 issues a warning message, but continues processing the script.
9177 Lines beginning with @samp{*} are comments.
9179 You can write these commands using all upper-case letters, or all
9180 lower case; for example, @samp{chip} is the same as @samp{CHIP}.
9181 The following list shows only the upper-case form of each command.
9184 @cindex @code{ABSOLUTE} (MRI)
9185 @item ABSOLUTE @var{secname}
9186 @itemx ABSOLUTE @var{secname}, @var{secname}, @dots{} @var{secname}
9187 Normally, @command{ld} includes in the output file all sections from all
9188 the input files. However, in an MRI-compatible script, you can use the
9189 @code{ABSOLUTE} command to restrict the sections that will be present in
9190 your output program. If the @code{ABSOLUTE} command is used at all in a
9191 script, then only the sections named explicitly in @code{ABSOLUTE}
9192 commands will appear in the linker output. You can still use other
9193 input sections (whatever you select on the command line, or using
9194 @code{LOAD}) to resolve addresses in the output file.
9196 @cindex @code{ALIAS} (MRI)
9197 @item ALIAS @var{out-secname}, @var{in-secname}
9198 Use this command to place the data from input section @var{in-secname}
9199 in a section called @var{out-secname} in the linker output file.
9201 @var{in-secname} may be an integer.
9203 @cindex @code{ALIGN} (MRI)
9204 @item ALIGN @var{secname} = @var{expression}
9205 Align the section called @var{secname} to @var{expression}. The
9206 @var{expression} should be a power of two.
9208 @cindex @code{BASE} (MRI)
9209 @item BASE @var{expression}
9210 Use the value of @var{expression} as the lowest address (other than
9211 absolute addresses) in the output file.
9213 @cindex @code{CHIP} (MRI)
9214 @item CHIP @var{expression}
9215 @itemx CHIP @var{expression}, @var{expression}
9216 This command does nothing; it is accepted only for compatibility.
9218 @cindex @code{END} (MRI)
9220 This command does nothing whatever; it's only accepted for compatibility.
9222 @cindex @code{FORMAT} (MRI)
9223 @item FORMAT @var{output-format}
9224 Similar to the @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT} command in the more general linker
9225 language, but restricted to S-records, if @var{output-format} is @samp{S}
9227 @cindex @code{LIST} (MRI)
9228 @item LIST @var{anything}@dots{}
9229 Print (to the standard output file) a link map, as produced by the
9230 @command{ld} command-line option @samp{-M}.
9232 The keyword @code{LIST} may be followed by anything on the
9233 same line, with no change in its effect.
9235 @cindex @code{LOAD} (MRI)
9236 @item LOAD @var{filename}
9237 @itemx LOAD @var{filename}, @var{filename}, @dots{} @var{filename}
9238 Include one or more object file @var{filename} in the link; this has the
9239 same effect as specifying @var{filename} directly on the @command{ld}
9242 @cindex @code{NAME} (MRI)
9243 @item NAME @var{output-name}
9244 @var{output-name} is the name for the program produced by @command{ld}; the
9245 MRI-compatible command @code{NAME} is equivalent to the command-line
9246 option @samp{-o} or the general script language command @code{OUTPUT}.
9248 @cindex @code{ORDER} (MRI)
9249 @item ORDER @var{secname}, @var{secname}, @dots{} @var{secname}
9250 @itemx ORDER @var{secname} @var{secname} @var{secname}
9251 Normally, @command{ld} orders the sections in its output file in the
9252 order in which they first appear in the input files. In an MRI-compatible
9253 script, you can override this ordering with the @code{ORDER} command. The
9254 sections you list with @code{ORDER} will appear first in your output
9255 file, in the order specified.
9257 @cindex @code{PUBLIC} (MRI)
9258 @item PUBLIC @var{name}=@var{expression}
9259 @itemx PUBLIC @var{name},@var{expression}
9260 @itemx PUBLIC @var{name} @var{expression}
9261 Supply a value (@var{expression}) for external symbol
9262 @var{name} used in the linker input files.
9264 @cindex @code{SECT} (MRI)
9265 @item SECT @var{secname}, @var{expression}
9266 @itemx SECT @var{secname}=@var{expression}
9267 @itemx SECT @var{secname} @var{expression}
9268 You can use any of these three forms of the @code{SECT} command to
9269 specify the start address (@var{expression}) for section @var{secname}.
9270 If you have more than one @code{SECT} statement for the same
9271 @var{secname}, only the @emph{first} sets the start address.
9274 @node GNU Free Documentation License
9275 @appendix GNU Free Documentation License
9279 @unnumbered LD Index
9284 % I think something like @@colophon should be in texinfo. In the
9286 \long\def\colophon{\hbox to0pt{}\vfill
9287 \centerline{The body of this manual is set in}
9288 \centerline{\fontname\tenrm,}
9289 \centerline{with headings in {\bf\fontname\tenbf}}
9290 \centerline{and examples in {\tt\fontname\tentt}.}
9291 \centerline{{\it\fontname\tenit\/} and}
9292 \centerline{{\sl\fontname\tensl\/}}
9293 \centerline{are used for emphasis.}\vfill}
9295 % Blame: doc@@cygnus.com, 28mar91.